Evaluation of Methodologies for Visual Impact Assessments (2013) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 13-61
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13 The first task of the research project was to conduct a review of the academic and professional literature related to visual impact assessment (VIA) , particularly critiques of VIA methodologies used on transportation projects.
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14 However, as noted by Smardon and Karp in The Legal Landscape: Guidelines for Regulating Environmental and Aesthetic Quality, environmental assessment -- in particular, VIA -- has rarely met the broad requirements of NEPA: Procedurally, visual considerations as treated in EIAs [Environmental Impact Assessments] have rarely met the requirements as stated in the National Environmental Policy Act and Council of Environmental Quality regulations.
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15 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) processes virtually never conclude that the preferred alternatives are those that have the greatest costs in a cost-benefit analysis, even if a greater cost alternative has greater aesthetic benefit (Goodell 2008)
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16 decisions regarding aesthetics alone. A precondition for expert testimony in federal court is a connection to valid science, requiring that the expert be aware of a body of knowledge: published scholarship that has been subjected to peer review, published, and accepted by the relevant scientific community.
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17 How is visual impact defined? • Is it perceived, intrinsic or both?
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18 Each of the landscape assessment procedures documents and maps some or all of these baseline conditions. A fifth characteristic, the landscape's sensitivity to change, is included in some, but not all, methods.
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19 • Four landscape procedures identify fixed thresholds for distance zones, as shown in Table 2.1. • Distance zones do not have a strong and explicit effect on impact significance.
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20 without indicating how the proportion or major concern is determined (p.
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21 indirectly affected by the proposed development" (The Landscape Institute and Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment 2002, p.
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22 VMS and SMS are oriented toward VRM rather than VIA procedures per se. They require field evaluation throughout the landscape and as a result do not discuss the identification and selection of specific viewpoints.
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23 and/or sensitivity analysis, comparing the result to the baseline or desired future condition, and determining whether the change falls within acceptable limits for the area's visual management objectives. In VMS, visual quality is a function of variety class (a descriptive framework to identify three levels of distinctiveness based on form, line, color and texture in landform, rockform, vegetation, and water forms)
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24 and user activity) of the forecast conditions with and without the project.
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25 on assumptions about the importance of different types of places (e.g., Interstate Highways are more important than local roads) and different groups' concerns for scenery (e.g., scenery is more important to people fishing than to people commuting)
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26 question of whether those values should be quantified or even monetized for cost-benefit analysis. All of the procedures rely primarily on professional judgment, applying a system of expert-determined criteria.
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27 VRAP and the VRM -- discuss how to use the assessment to guide mitigation. • The VRAP's instruction is that "the outcome of this analysis is that the visual impact is or is not significant, given technical, institutional, and public considerations.
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28 Frequently, transportation projects are proposed with the intent of stimulating growth. Given this situation, it seems natural that the VIA not be limited to the project's direct visual impacts, but rather include the anticipated development.
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29 Representation of the Public None of the VIA procedures uses a scientific method to represent public perceptions; none are based on quantitative data about the public's perception of landscape, and none are based on peer-reviewed literature. All of the procedures use expert judgment to assess visual quality, as well as people's and/or places' sensitivity to change, and these judgments are assumed to represent public perceptions.
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30 research specifically evaluating VIAs. Nonetheless, the few studies that have been conducted offer significant insights into the procedural differences between methods and their relative validity and reliability.
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31 Criticism of Evaluation Techniques In 1980, the U.S. Water Resources Council's Environmental Quality Evaluation Procedures (EQEP)
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32 by which Priestley means that "there is no consensus on a central paradigm, so the field generally consists of competing schools of thought." No evidence yet exists that a central paradigm has emerged. Rather, some VIA procedures are still being utilized by their agency sponsors and others are being allowed to atrophy.
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33 which will aid in the identification of viewsheds. Several researchers have conducted evaluations of the accuracy of viewshed calculations (Fisher 1991; Sander and Manson 2007; van Bilsen and Stolk 2008)
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34 the evaluations of the real view and the photograph differed significantly)
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35 architects in a 2-day VIA training course apply the BLM contrast rating system to five pairs of photographs representing the pre- and post-impact condition. Table 2.8 reports single rater reliabilities from both studies.
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36 The most natural landscape may not always be the most scenic. Because of the type of land that they are responsible for managing, USFS and BLM treat the natural "climax" landscape state as having the highest quality.
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37 management objectives (i.e., recommendations rather than regulations) for urban areas.
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38 conclude that sight is the dominant sensual basis for aesthetic experience of landscapes. Several reviews also note that movement through the landscape is a complex experience that is not fully captured by a single, static view.
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39 2.4.3 Reliability of Landscape Characterizations Several reviews of empirical research have classified different approaches to characterizing landscapes in order to predict the relationship between landscape characteristics and aesthetic experiences, and their classifications have essential similarities. If inferences drawn from landscape characterizations are to be justified in the face of legal challenges to VIA systems, reliability of the characteristics as measures related to visual quality (or synonymous terms like attractiveness, beauty, pleasantness)
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40 acceptable inter-rater reliability. Palmer also found modest differences between inter-rater reliability of environmental professionals compared to citizens using the same attributes.
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41 landscape preferences, with little variation among viewer groups. Based on the empirical literature, these reviews (Daniel and Vining 1983; Gobster and Chenoweth 1989; Matsuoka and Kaplan 2008; Swanwick 2009; Nassauer 1995; Daniel 2001; Gobster et al.
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42 Of the roughly 30 characteristics they empirically tested with 59 informed stakeholders, both pavement maintenance and absence of derelict properties were strongly related to desirable Main Street characteristics. Shaffer and Anderson (1983)
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43 Naturalness. Both Nassauer and Larsen (2006)
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44 highway settings, consistently identifies the presence of litter or deterioration of structures or surfaces as reducing visual quality. Highway proposals that might increase litter or deterioration of structures would certainly impact visual quality.
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45 but as yet no reports are available. Papers have been published on the topic in China, but although short summary translations are available, these are insufficient to provide a good understanding of content.
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46 The Wider Context of Landscape Planning in the UK The UK has a well-developed system of statutory land use and development planning that covers the entire extent of the territory. There is no statutory system of landscape planning (as exists in Germany)
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47 This broad concept of landscape and the accompanying focus on landscape character is enshrined in the text of the European Landscape Convention (ELC) which was influenced by the work carried out in the UK over several decades.
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48 such reviews of LVIA methods per se, and none that focuses on visual or aesthetic impacts to landscapes. Most practice reviews of Environmental Statements are carried out by the regulating authorities to whom they are submitted, sometimes using contractors to supply the specialist expertise.
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49 either verify or challenge such visualizations. The academic study by Wood (2000)
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50 scheme and its impact on a particular landscape.] There is also evidence that respondents with a general preference against intrusion of manmade structures on the natural landscape tend towards higher WTP.
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51 guidelines about the intervention provision. Previously, the federal government of Germany was merely responsible for adopting general provisions, and the different laws of the 16 states (Bundeslaender)
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52 are available. Compensation relating to impacts on the visual landscape is frequently identified in a mathematical or economic manner, which makes it easier for project proposers to estimate the costs that might occur at the outset of a project.
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53 • Some states have used mathematical methods and economic valuation, but others have moved toward more descriptive approaches. 2.5.3 New Zealand The New Zealand Transport Agency has recently commissioned a program of work through Landcare Research Ltd.
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54 absorption. Factors to be considered when determining VAC include broad contextual considerations like biodiversity, soil stability, and erosion potential.
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55 the first of these and is considered to be determined by considering (1) whether the viewers are permanent or temporary; (2)
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56 quality of the view that might be lost was not considered; neither was the "view from the road," which is crucial for scenic perception as well as driver satisfaction and alertness. These shortcomings were subsequently recognized and improvements suggested for the assessment procedure.
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57 referred to as "viewshed" or "zone of visual influence") , "visibility," and "visual impact." The guidelines describe eight steps required in carrying out LCA and VIA: • Step 1: Analyze landscape character based on desk and field study and incorporating the main physical, natural, and built components of the landscape.
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58 There are similarities between the Western Australia and New South Wales approaches, with both methods emphasizing inputs to design principles and visual management objectives. 2.5.5 Switzerland Information on the Swiss approach comes from an account by Marguerite Trocmé (2010)
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59 tribute to visual quality and uses a scoring method to codify the judgments made. Landscape quality or value may focus narrowly on aesthetics, or include other cultural and social values.
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60 2.6.3 Designated Visual Management Objectives Enhance VIA Legitimacy VIA is essentially a process for evaluating the acceptability of visual change in the landscape. In order to make this evaluation, some criterion or standard must be employed.
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61 are based on the existing body of scientific knowledge of visual impact systems or of public landscape perceptions. Since U.S.
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