Airport Ground Support Equipment (GSE): Emission Reduction Strategies, Inventory, and Tutorial (2012) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Pages 6-70
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 6... ...
6The essential outcomes and products of the research are presented in the following sections. 3.1 GSE Types and Functions Prepared in conjunction with Task 1, the following materials identify the different kinds of GSE and how they are used at airports of varying functions (i.e., hub and non-hub)
|
From page 7... ...
research Findings and products 7 Category Category Description GSE GSE Description Ground power/air conditioning Used to help start the engines, operate instruments and provide for passenger comfort (e.g., lighting, air conditioning) while an aircraft is on the ground.
|
From page 8... ...
8 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Category Category Description GSE GSE Description Potable water trucks/carts These trucks provide drinkable water to an aircraft.
|
From page 9... ...
research Findings and products 9 Category Category Description GSE GSE Description Baggage/cargo handling Passenger baggage/some cargo must be transferred to/from gates and from gate to gate. Cargo-only aircraft typically have one or more large doors to facilitate loading/unloading of goods.
|
From page 10... ...
10 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial hub or non-hub)
|
From page 11... ...
research Findings and products 11 Among other factors, the number of deicing vehicles that are required depends on the severity and frequency of conditions requiring deicing and the number of operations at an airport. • Infrastructure: The available infrastructure at an airport can negate the need for certain types of GSE or reduce an airport's dependence on some GSE.
|
From page 12... ...
12 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial implemented to achieve the NAAQS.
|
From page 13... ...
research Findings and products 13 GSE are commonly classifiable under two subcategories of mobile sources: (1) non-road vehicles (i.e., engines and equipment that would not be expected to travel on public roadways)
|
From page 14... ...
14 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial 3.2.2 Non-road Engine Emission Standards (Compression and Spark Ignition)
|
From page 15... ...
research Findings and products 15 of manufacture and rated engine output (e.g., horsepower) with greater stringency (i.e., lower emissions)
|
From page 16... ...
16 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial other vehicles such as motorcycles.
|
From page 17... ...
research Findings and products 17 enforceable emission limitations and other control measures, means, and techniques as well as schedules and timetables to achieve compliance with the NAAQS. A SIP attainment or maintenance demonstration relies on detailed analyses of emission levels from stationary and mobile sources, including the degree of reductions of emissions (or reductions in the growth of emissions)
|
From page 18... ...
18 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial either entitlements or from the discretionary "noise and air quality set-aside" budgets.
|
From page 19... ...
research Findings and products 19 3.3 Air Emission Mitigation Strategies Applicable to GSE This section identifies and discusses various approaches that have been implemented at airports to reduce air emissions from GSE. In addition, the available incentives, the benefits gained, and the potential barriers to attaining emission reductions associated with GSE are also discussed.
|
From page 20... ...
20 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial discharged into the atmosphere.
|
From page 21... ...
research Findings and products 21 purpose-built equipment or retrofitting of existing equipment. Today, a variety of alternative combustion fuels are available for use in internal combustion engines that power GSE.
|
From page 22... ...
22 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial 3.3.4 Other Approaches At least two other approaches to managing GSE emissions also exist: emission-related fees and tenant lease agreements.
|
From page 23... ...
research Findings and products 23 Implementer GSE Program Details Example Airport Programs Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport (ATL) At ATL, a new baggage system, extensive use of fueling carts in lieu of fueling trucks, and more than 200 new electric GSE units are expected to result in reductions in conventional fuel use and emissions associated with GSE.
|
From page 24... ...
24 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Implementer GSE Program Details Louisville International Airport (SDF)
|
From page 25... ...
research Findings and products 25 Implementer GSE Program Details Continental Airlines Continental reports that NOx emissions from GSE have been reduced by approximately 75 percent at IAH by switching to electric GSE and other emission reduction technologies. Delta Air Lines In 2010, Delta opened its new GSE facility at ATL where it conducts the majority of the GSE fuel conversions.
|
From page 26... ...
26 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Types of Alternative Fuel The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct)
|
From page 27... ...
research Findings and products 27 • Cold temperature fuel gelling. Because E85 may freeze in lower temperatures, fueling stations may need to switch to a lower blend of ethanol during winter months to prevent starting problems.
|
From page 28... ...
28 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial • Energy content.
|
From page 29... ...
research Findings and products 29 cost of CNG is typically 15 to 40 percent less than gasoline or diesel and the CNG market has historically been more stable. • Maintenance.
|
From page 30... ...
30 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Electric Vehicles.
|
From page 31... ...
research Findings and products 31 Converting to electric power does not require certification from the U.S.
|
From page 32... ...
32 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Hydrogen vehicles either convert the chemical energy of hydrogen into torque by combustion or electrochemical conversion in a fuel cell.
|
From page 33... ...
research Findings and products 33 Cost of Conventional Fuels vs. Alternative Fuels This subsection compares the cost of conventional petroleum-based fuels with the cost of alternative fuels, including the historical, current, and forecast costs.
|
From page 34... ...
GGE = gallon of gasoline equivalent Source: U.S. Department of Energy (2012b)
|
From page 35... ...
Table 3-7. Average U.S.
|
From page 36... ...
36 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Table 3-11 identifies how alternative-fuel prices for the month of January 2012 varied based on U.S.
|
From page 37... ...
Fuel 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Cost per Gallon of Gasoline Equivalent Gasoline $2.99 $3.43 $3.91 $3.04 $1.86 $2.02 $2.44 $2.64 $2.65 $2.84 $2.71 $2.78 $3.08 $3.69 $3.68 $3.46 $3.37 Diesel $3.05 $3.71 $4.22 $3.27 $2.19 $2.04 $2.27 $2.50 $2.57 $2.71 $2.65 $2.75 $3.09 $3.62 $3.54 $3.42 $3.46 Compressed natural gas $1.93 $2.04 $2.34 $2.01 $1.63 $1.64 $1.73 $1.86 $1.85 $1.90 $1.91 $1.93 $1.93 $2.06 $2.07 $2.09 $2.13 Ethanol (E85) $3.55 $4.06 $4.62 $3.99 $2.56 $2.66 $3.01 $3.21 $3.36 $3.42 $3.25 $3.45 $3.89 $4.52 $4.60 $4.51 $4.44 Propane $4.31 $4.36 $4.34 $4.67 $3.77 $3.56 $3.43 $3.72 $4.13 $3.99 $4.01 $3.93 $4.22 $4.41 $4.26 $4.23 $4.26 Biodiesel (B20)
|
From page 38... ...
38 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Additionally, bulk fuel purchase discounts or in the case of electric vehicles, off-peak electrical charging usage should be considered in the overall fuel costs for each GSE fuel type.
|
From page 39... ...
research Findings and products 39 cost to own and operate baggage tractors. Alternative-fuel equipment should be evaluated to determine if their operation could reduce labor costs and/or free up labor resources for other non-fuel emissions-related ground handling operations.
|
From page 40... ...
40 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Alternatively, "de-peaking" the schedule places less demand on labor and equipment resources.
|
From page 41... ...
research Findings and products 41 nance cost (labor and parts) of a typical gasoline or diesel baggage tractor can amount to a large percentage of the total life-cycle cost.
|
From page 42... ...
42 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Operators of electric GSE should also be informed of the charging time required, when the GSE needs to be recharged to ensure demand is met, and the best time to charge the vehicle if peak electrical usage rates apply.
|
From page 43... ...
research Findings and products 43 The study found that electric GSE has lower operating costs than ICE GSE for the baggage tractor, belt loader, and pushback tractor. Capital costs for new ICE GSE are significantly lower than for new electric GSE.
|
From page 44... ...
44 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Emission Reduction Potentials and Penalties The fundamental physical and chemical properties of alternative fuels as they pertain to air emissions are presented in this section.
|
From page 45... ...
research Findings and products 45 studies on the effects of biodiesel on CI engine emissions have observed a reduction in NOx emissions over that of conventional diesel fuel of up to 25 percent (Utlu and Kocak 2008, Qi et al. 2009, Aydin and Ilkilic 2010)
|
From page 46... ...
46 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial whereby CNG usage offered PM reductions with respect to some operating loads and speeds and increases with respect to others (Ristovski et al.
|
From page 47... ...
research Findings and products 47 Another study determined that LPG vehicles emit significantly more mercury (Hg) than conventional-fuel equivalents (Won et al.
|
From page 48... ...
48 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial and LPG fuels, and 99.3 percent relative to diesel.
|
From page 49... ...
research Findings and products 49 NOx emissions from combustion of H2ICE fuel is a function of the fuel-to-air ratio of the fuel and can be constrained using NOx traps, water injection, and EGR applications (Verhelst and Wallner 2009)
|
From page 50... ...
50 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Dimethyl Ether.
|
From page 51... ...
research Findings and products 51 National Fire Protection Association diamonds will indicate whether the fuel is flammable or combustible.
|
From page 52... ...
52 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Electricity Soil and Water Resources.
|
From page 53... ...
research Findings and products 53 Climatic Considerations. Because a singular design for hydrogen-powered engines has not yet been selected and cold weather performance varies by design and application, the climatic effects are not known.
|
From page 54... ...
54 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial (where available)
|
From page 55... ...
Airport Size Categorya Weather Categoryb Dates Surveyed (2011) Boise (BOI)
|
From page 56... ...
56 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial the statistical evaluation, several type categories were combined to provide a sufficient number of data points in a category to develop meaningful evaluations.
|
From page 57... ...
research Findings and products 57 The distribution of fuel types by airport shown on Figure 3-5 indicates that only three of the surveyed airports had more than 20 percent alternative fuels. Comparing the air quality nonattainment designations for the surveyed airports indicates that regions around the Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW)
|
From page 58... ...
58 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial The GSE inventories for the 12 surveyed airports are plotted against 20101 commercial operations on Figure 3-6.
|
From page 59... ...
research Findings and products 59 average temperature in January for the given airport. It should be noted that Total Enplanements, Commercial Operations, and Total Operations are not completely independent parameters.
|
From page 60... ...
60 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 To ta lG SE In ve nt or y 2010 Commercial Operations Surveyed Inventory Estimated Inventory Figure 3-7.
|
From page 61... ...
research Findings and products 61 3.6.2 Airline-Provided Data The research team contacted U.S. air carriers and other owners of GSE, primarily through contacts within Airlines for America (A4A, formerly the Air Transport Association)
|
From page 62... ...
62 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial The airline-provided data are also summarized by fuel type in Table 3-21.
|
From page 63... ...
research Findings and products 63 Comparing the fuel distributions from the two data sets does show some similarities. Specifically, the ranking of fuel type is identical for both (ignoring the data in the "unknown" fuel-type category)
|
From page 64... ...
64 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Overall, the estimate of the national GSE inventory using this approach would be approximately 74,000 units (47,000 plus 27,000)
|
From page 65... ...
research Findings and products 65 unavailable, and operators need additional equipment to maintain service levels. The surveyed airports all had some quantity of electric GSE.
|
From page 66... ...
66 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial This comparison indicates that the correlation has substantial errors when applied to individual airports.
|
From page 67... ...
research Findings and products 67 Over the past several years, the FAA VALE Program has financed a number of airport improvements aimed at supporting alternative-fuel GSE or reducing the need for conventionalfuel GSE. Table 3-22 contains a summary listing of several VALE projects designed to meet these objectives.
|
From page 68... ...
68 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial Within the public domain of information, the Idaho National Laboratories GSE Cost-Benefit Analysis Study provides a representative and most up-to-date sample of the purchase costs for commonly used GSE.
|
From page 69... ...
research Findings and products 69 lights and markings, etc. To achieve equivalent levels of safety among various types of equipment, additional operator training and safety supervision is often required.
|
From page 70... ...
70 airport Ground Support equipment (GSe) : emission reduction Strategies, Inventory, and tutorial suitable for the fuel type and GSE being considered.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.