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From page 68... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-1 APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW This appendix discusses the following: • Airport sustainability plans, air quality and noise management reports • Monitoring of fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) in the vicinity of airports • Calculation of emissions at airports • Aircraft and auxiliary power unit (APU) Read the entire page →
From page 69... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-2 MONITORING OF PM2.5 Several PM IN THE VICINITY OF AIRPORTS 2.5 air monitoring campaigns have been carried out at airports across the U.S. (SCAQMD, 2000a, 2000b; Fanning et al., 2007; Westerdahl et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2009; Massport, 2010; ENVIRON, 2008; RI DEM, 2008; Dodson et al., 2009 and BCAA, 2006) Read the entire page →
From page 70... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-3 Both of these types of particulate matter are typically classified as PM10, PM2.5, and PM0.1 Jet Turbines and Turbofans . The development of methods to estimate the emissions of particulate matter from aircraft engines is still at a relatively early stage when compared with other modes of transport. Read the entire page →
From page 71... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-4 The general consensus is that the FOA methodology is not sufficiently accurate and that work in the U.S. (including the U.S. Read the entire page →
From page 72... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-5 the flows after the exit plane. In engines with external mix, this multiplication factor is conservative as it increases the non-volatile primary particulate matter component. Read the entire page →
From page 73... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-6 should be noted that these data relate to particulate matter in general and not to PM2.5, though it has been assumed that all particulate matter is PM2.5 Piston-engine Aircraft . In addition, military aircraft may not be using Jet-A specification fuel, but will be using a similar military specification (e.g., JP-8) Read the entire page →
From page 74... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-7 Brake and Tire Wear No brake and tire wear is included in EDMS for aircraft or, typically, in U.S. airport emissions inventories in general. Read the entire page →
From page 75... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-8 fuels. Newer alternative fuels are frequently referred to by their source feedstock (coal, natural gas, or a specific plant or animal biomass) Read the entire page →
From page 76... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-9 increases, as found in U.S. Air Force tests comparing jet fuel with varying percentages of FT fuel. Read the entire page →
From page 77... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-10 Anderson, 2009) using two fuels – JP-8 and FT CTL. Read the entire page →
From page 78... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-11 Turbine Engine Fuel Type Engine Setting SOx SN (mg/kg fuel) EI particles/kg fuel Black Carbon mg/kg fuel HC EI g/kg fuel Source Cruise. Read the entire page →
From page 79... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-12 Turbine Engine Fuel Type Engine Setting SOx SN (mg/kg fuel) EI particles/kg fuel Black Carbon mg/kg fuel HC EI g/kg fuel Source FT CTL neat Low power (4%-45% max rated power) Read the entire page →
From page 80... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-13 GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT (GSE) EMISSIONS GSE emissions tend to refer to the airside emissions from aircraft support equipment, such as mobile generators, air-conditioning units, baggage, fuel, food and cargo trucks, and loaders and tugs. Read the entire page →
From page 81... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-14 methodology (the same, but without the degradation factor) for GSE and ground power unit (GPU) Read the entire page →
From page 82... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-15 Many of these fuels have very limited availability or are still at the research and development stage (e.g., P-series and hydrogen) Read the entire page →
From page 83... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-16 Interestingly, EDMS automatically assumes lower sulfur content when calculating future GSE emissions for SOx, but not other pollutants (U.S. Read the entire page →
From page 84... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-17 emission factors, such as gasoline, diesel, CNG, LPG and electricity (U.S. Read the entire page →
From page 85... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-18 ROAD VEHICLE ALTERNATIVE FUELS The U.S. DOE defines the following alternative fuels for vehicles under the Energy Policy Act (1992) Read the entire page →
From page 86... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-19 A review carried out for the European Commission also investigated the effects of biofuels on emissions (JNC, 2006) Read the entire page →
From page 87... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-20 OTHER EMISSION SOURCES "Other" emissions refers to emissions from on-airport sources other than the major sources discussed above (aircraft, APU, GSE, and road vehicles) Read the entire page →
From page 88... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-21 close to the airport perimeter, the details of stack efflux characteristics may play a critical role in ensuring that the contribution from this source is minor. Natural gas, which, as a fuel, has relatively few associated particulate matter emissions, is currently used at a large number of U.S. Read the entire page →
From page 89... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-22 There are other motivations for changing the type of fuel and/or type of plant to supply heating and energy on an airport in addition to economic considerations and the desire to reduce local air quality pollutant emissions. In recent years, an important driver of change has been the desire to reduce the airport's carbon footprint, and biomass-fueled plant are increasingly being considered as a replacement for existing plants or as a supplement to meet the requirements of airport expansion. Read the entire page →
From page 90... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-23 predicting concentrations. However, it should be noted that AERMOD is a short-range dispersion model used to assess local air quality impacts and does not include chemical interactions that result in the formation of secondary atmospheric particulate matter. Read the entire page →
From page 91... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-24 impact on sensitive populations, including at terminal curbsides, runway ends, and in surrounding nearby residential or public use areas. For evaluation against the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS, a background concentration of 36.9 µg/m3 was applied based on available monitoring data for evaluation against the annual PM2.5 NAAQS, a background concentration of 15.0 µg/m3 was used. Read the entire page →
From page 92... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-1 APPENDIX B: CASE STUDY AIRPORTS This Appendix discusses the detailed methodology used to determine the five case study airports for the ACRP 02-23 project. These five airports were considered to offer the best opportunities to produce meaningful results for the ACRP 02-23 project. Read the entire page →
From page 93... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-2 • Aircraft • Auxiliary power units (APUs) • Ground support equipment (GSE) Read the entire page →
From page 94... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-3 airports. For this reason, a search was conducted to determine which of the first-order airports had conducted air quality studies that were reasonably recent and had datasets that were potentially useful to the ACRP 02-23 project. Read the entire page →
From page 95... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-4 With respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling data, airport air quality assessments that also contain airfield simulation modeling results from models such as the Total Airspace and Airport Modeler (TAAM) or Airport and Airspace Simulation Model (SIMMOD) Read the entire page →
From page 96... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-5 PRIMARY EVALUATION CRITERIA The following were considered to be among the most important characteristics (i.e., primary criteria) for a case study airport: • Availability of existing, recent and appropriate air quality assessment data • Willingness to participate in the ACRP 02-23 project • Current or planned alternative fuel program • Representative of other airports based on size, location, climate, etc. Read the entire page →
From page 97... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-6 PM2.5 The PM Attainment/Non-attainment Areas 2.5 Figure 4 National Ambient Air quality Standards (NAAQS) attainment/non-attainment status of an area is important in the context of federal and state air quality regulations, SIP requirements and timetables, and the potential eligibility for the funding of alternative fuel initiatives such as the FAA Voluntary Airport Low Emissions (VALE) Read the entire page →
From page 98... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-7 number of days with temperatures less than 32°F, average wind speed, the number of days with measureable precipitation, the average annual relative humidity, the percent of time the sun shines, and the number of heating and cooling degree days (HDD/CDD) were also considered. Read the entire page →
From page 99... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports B-8 Demographics and Land Use Notwithstanding land use regulations that aim to guide compatible development around U.S. airports, population densities adjacent to many of these facilities are increasing, especially near some of the oldest (e.g., Chicago-Midway, Providence T.F. Read the entire page →
From page 100... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-1 APPENDIX C: CASE STUDY ALTERNATIVE FUELS This Appendix discusses each of the criteria used to assess the alternative fuels described in Chapter 4. Table 11, which follows the discussions of the criterion at the end of this Appendix, presents the detailed assessment of each fuel and source combination and supports the selection of the final case study alternative fuels, as described in Chapter 4. Read the entire page →
From page 101... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-2 In addition, to quantify primary and secondary particulate matter emissions separately, it is necessary to have data not just on the changes in black carbon mass (g/kg) for estimating primary emissions, but also on sulfur and hydrocarbon (HC) Read the entire page →
From page 102... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-3 2.5 µm range) as reproduced in Table 8 in Appendix A Read the entire page →
From page 103... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-4 Road Vehicles Smaller road vehicles tend to run on gasoline and larger vehicles (e.g., trucks) on diesel. Read the entire page →
From page 104... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-5 DROP-IN FUEL FOR EXISTING VEHICLES If the fuel is a drop-in fuel where no new vehicles or modifications are necessary, then the only cost involved is likely to be in terms of additional fuel costs and infrastructure. Therefore, this is an important consideration. Read the entire page →
From page 105... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-6 VEHICLE COST COMPARED WITH CONVENTIONAL The current availability of some alternative-fueled vehicles is limited and, therefore, the cost of these vehicles is often high compared with standard vehicles of the same type. However, other conventional vehicles are now being manufactured to allow the use of higher-percentage blends of ethanol and biodiesel (sometimes called "flex-fuel" vehicles) Read the entire page →
From page 106... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-7 WARRANTY VALIDITY ISSUE Some fuels, such as high-percentage blends of biodiesel, may be used in existing vehicles without modification, but may invalidate the vehicle's warranty. This is an issue that vehicle owners will need to consider where warranties are still in date. Read the entire page →
From page 107... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-8 C ri te ri on C ha ng e PM 2. Read the entire page →
From page 108... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports C-9 C ri te ri on C ha ng e PM 2. Read the entire page →
From page 109... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-1 APPENDIX D: DETAILED METHODOLOGY Chapter 5 describes how the data for the base case and alternative fuel scenarios were generated. This appendix provides further details on the methodology. Read the entire page →
From page 110... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-2 First-Order Approximation (FOA) 3a Methodology The FOA3a methodology accounts for the volatile and non-volatile components of emissions of fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) Read the entire page →
From page 111... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-3 Table 13 – Alte rna tive Fu el Em is s ion Fac tors (AF) Ratios fo r J e t Turb ines and Turbofan Airc raft (main eng ines and APU) Read the entire page →
From page 112... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-4 Table 14 – Alte rna tive Fu el Em is s ion Fac tors (AF) Ratios fo r o ther Aircraft Typ es Fuel and Source type Source Ratio (AF) Read the entire page →
From page 113... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-5 Note that as shown in Table 15, for some fuel and source combinations, the alternative emissions have been calculated using EDMS databases (e.g., GSE) or MOBILE6.2 (e.g., for road vehicles) Read the entire page →
From page 114... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-6 example, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL) used worldwide defaults, while Manchester-Boston Regional Airport (MHT) Read the entire page →
From page 115... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-7 • Boundary receptors – these receptors are located in areas along the airport boundary including runway ends at a spacing of 10° to 15°. • Terminal area receptors – these receptors are located within the main terminal curbside area. Read the entire page →
From page 116... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-8 varies both spatially and temporally throughout the day, season and year with corresponding changes in these above mentioned environmental factors. Figure 17 – Wind Ros es fo r Five Cas e Stud y Airports Read the entire page →
From page 117... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-9 Mixing Height In air quality assessments (i.e., emissions inventories and dispersion modeling) , the atmospheric mixing height is used to define the vertical limits of a particular study area. Read the entire page →
From page 118... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-10 an overestimation of the background values, as the monitoring station may already include a portion of the airport contribution. Nevertheless, given that the focus of the ACRP 02-23 project is the airport sources and the impact that alternative fuels will have on the emissions and ambient PM2.5, it is appropriate to select a representative value only so that an approximation of the total ambient PM2.5 concentrations can be obtained. Read the entire page →
From page 119... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-11 Table 19 – Emission Changes and Application to Dispersion Source (Aircraft) Fuel and Source Type Scenario/Base Applied to Model Source FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 120... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-12 Table 20 – Emission Changes and Application to Dispersion Source (Non-aircraft) Fuel and Source Type Scenario/Base Applied to Model Source Electric GSE Terminal/concourse LPG GSE replacing diesel GSE Terminal/concourse CNG GSE replacing gasoline GSE Terminal/concourse CNG GSE replacing diesel GSE Terminal/concourse E10 in gasoline-fueled GSE Terminal/concourse B20 in diesel-fueled GSE Terminal/concourse B100 in diesel-fueled GSE Terminal/concourse Natural gas road vehicles to replace diesel Internal roadways and parking (exhaust only) Read the entire page →
From page 121... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports D-13 Turboprop and Turboshaft Aircraft As previously noted, EDMS does not typically include PM2.5 emission results for piston-engine, turboprop, and turboshaft aircraft as there are no FAA accepted emission factors for these aircraft. As such, a number of turboprop and turboshaft aircraft particulate matter emissions data were used (as discussed in Chapter 2 and Appendix A) Read the entire page →
From page 122... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-1 APPENDIX E: CASE STUDY AIRPORT RESULTS Chapter 6 presents the case study airport emissions inventories and the range of emissions and other air pollution impacts for the alternative fuel scenarios compared to the base case. This Appendix presents detailed information relating to the base case and alternative fuel scenario emissions inventories and air quality impacts. Read the entire page →
From page 123... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-2 Figure 18 – Aircraft-Related Air Emissions Inventory (kg per LTO) Read the entire page →
From page 124... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-3 Table 22 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Mode (kg) Aircraft Mode ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Non-volatile Emissions Taxi-in 1,275 576 712 167 83 Taxi-out 836 682 679 282 73 Approach 1,274 376 1,046 512 90 Takeoff 5,453 4,728 3,319 1,738 364 Climb-out 2,868 1,675 1,364 718 170 Total non-volatile 11,706 8,037 7,120 3,417 780 Volatile Emissions Taxi-in 3,994 1,064 1,423 238 138 Taxi-out 2,463 1,414 1,345 546 121 Approach 3,849 578 1,720 797 142 Takeoff 6,025 4,563 3,328 1,701 426 Climb-out 4,121 1,948 1,710 897 245 Total volatile 20,452 9,567 9,526 4,179 1,073 Grand total 32,157 17,604 16,647 7,596 1,853 As shown in Table 22, the approach mode represents between 5% and 17%, the taxi-in mode between 5% and 16%, and the taxi-out mode between 10% and 12% of the total aircraft PM2.5 emissions. Read the entire page →
From page 125... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-4 Table 23 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Type (kg) Aircraft Type ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Business jet 1,298 771 408 366 178 Regional jet 8,756 342 2,037 812 357 Small jet 15,382 15,225 10,391 5,606 1,101 Medium jet 4,108 632 2,171 728 161 Large jet 2,612 634 1,371 85 56 User defined piston 0 0 269 0 0 Total 32,157 17,604 16,647 7,596 1,853 Note: EDMS 5.1.2 designations include business jet (Gulfstream V, Learjet 35) Read the entire page →
From page 126... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-5 Figure 19 – PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Type (kg per LTO) Ground Support Equipment The type of GSE analyzed included aircraft tugs, baggage tugs, belt loaders, fuel trucks, water trucks, lavatory trucks and cargo loaders. Read the entire page →
From page 127... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-6 Table 26 contains the GSE emissions data by GSE type and fuel type. Electric equipment is not listed as it does not emit direct PM2.5 emissions. Read the entire page →
From page 128... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-7 GSE Type Fuel Type ATL LAS PHL (a) SAN MHT CNG - - - 3 - LPG - 2 - - - Fuel truck Diesel 117 90 381 33 86 Gasoline - - 25 <0.5 - Generator Diesel - 58 - - - Gasoline - - - <0.5 - Ground power unit Diesel 26 131 953 147 89 Gasoline 20 26 5 2 26 Hydrant truck Diesel - - 152 - - Lavatory truck Diesel 144 14 57 1 20 Gasoline - 23 49 <0.5 1 Lift Diesel - 35 - <0.5 - Gasoline - - - <0.5 - Other Diesel - 25 - 1 - Passenger stand Diesel - - - 1 - Gasoline - - - <0.5 - Service truck Diesel 43 97 46 - 37 Gasoline - 48 127 1 - Sweeper Diesel - 3 - - - Water truck Gasoline - <0.5 128 - - Total 9,829 4,114 14,940 582 945 Note: A dash (-) Read the entire page →
From page 129... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-8 Road Vehicles For most airports, road vehicle emissions occur at parking lots and at on-airport and off-airport roadways, as shown in Table 28. The level of emissions that result from the operation of airportrelated road vehicles depends on several factors, including:  Volume of road vehicles  Vehicle fleet mix  Road vehicle emission factors  Travel distance  Vehicle speed  Vehicle model year Road vehicles include privately owned vehicles (e.g. Read the entire page →
From page 130... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-9 Table 29 – Road vehicle PM2.5 Emissions Inventory – Emission Factors Source Category ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Emissions (kg) per 1,000 enplanement On-airport roadways 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.05 Off-airport roadways 0.28 0.07 0.5 0.11 0.02 Emissions (grams) Read the entire page →
From page 131... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-10 Dispersion Modeling Analysis The AERMOD dispersion model incorporated in EDMS was used to estimate ambient (i.e., outdoor) concentrations of PM2.5 on, and in the vicinities of, the case study airports. Read the entire page →
From page 132... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-11 GSE and APU impact at the maximum receptor. Conversely, ATL may have a greater distance between the aprons and the public access receptors and, thus, have a smaller percentage contribution from GSE and APU. Read the entire page →
From page 133... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-12 Figure 20 – Air Dispersion Modeling Results – Annual Concentration (µg/m3) by Distance (meters) Read the entire page →
From page 134... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-13 Table 35 and Figure 21 present the maximum 24-hour 98th percentile concentration (airport contribution only) as a function of distance from the airport center point. Read the entire page →
From page 135... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-14 the threshold. Thus, concentrations at all receptors beyond this distance would be below the threshold. Read the entire page →
From page 136... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-15 Table 38 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Aircraft Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Aircraft Emissions PM2.5 emissions within EDMS 32,157 17,604 16,647 7,596 1,853 PM2.5 emissions not within EDMS (aircraft specific) Read the entire page →
From page 137... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-16 Table 40 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Aircraft by Mixing Height Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Actual Mixing Height 30,787 24,074 16,250 6,783 1,768 Mixing Height of 3,000 feet 32,157 17,604 16,647 7,596 1,853 ALTERNATIVE FUEL SCENARIOS The following tables present the detailed data and results of the base case and alternative fuel scenarios for each of the five case study airports. Read the entire page →
From page 138... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-17 Table 41 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (kg) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 78,920 34,440 52,366 13,928 3,426 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 139... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-18 Table 42 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory Condition Change in Annual Emissions (kg) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 140... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-19 Table 43 – Maximum 24-hour PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (µg/m 3) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 6.34 4.63 5.14 3.99 4.15 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 141... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-20 Table 44 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in Maximum 24-hour (µg/m3) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 142... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-21 Table 45 – Annual PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (µg/m 3) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 1.70 2.77 1.26 2.47 2.40 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 143... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-22 Table 46 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in Maximum Annual (µg/m3) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 144... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-23 Table 47 – Maximum 24-hour ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (m) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 5,674 4,614 5,487 2,920 1,953 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 145... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-24 Table 48 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in 24-hour Radius of Influence (m) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 146... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-25 Table 49 – Annual ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (m) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 4,968 4,952 4,012 4,018 1,988 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 147... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-26 Table 50 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in Annual Radius of Influence (m) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 148... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-27 Table 51 – Maximum 24-hour Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (acres) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 14,322 3,647 11,515 1,390 364 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 149... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-28 Table 52 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in 24-hour Influence Area (acres) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 150... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-29 Table 53 – Annual Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (acres) Condition ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Base case 9,129 5,079 6,445 2,511 454 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 151... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-30 Table 54 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results Condition Change in Annual Influence Area (acres) from Base Case Percent Change from Base Case ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT 100% FT (natural gas) Read the entire page →
From page 152... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports E-31 Table 55 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Turboprop and Piston-engine Aircraft Condition Scenario ATL LAS PHL SAN MHT Turboprop Base case 3,337 985 4,119 1,266 2,189 FTG1 1,684 499 2,094 642 1,107 Piston-engine Base case 2.3 0.6 289 1.3 2.68 AGUL1 0.06 0.02 7.1 0.03 0.07 Read the entire page →
From page 153... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-1 APPENDIX F: GUIDANCE DOCUMENT Note: The spreadsheet tool referenced herein is available for download on the publication summary page on the TRB website. Access to this page is provided via the "ACRP Web-Only Document 13 Web Page" link on this document's bookmark menu. Read the entire page →
From page 154... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-2 LEVEL OF ANALYSIS – A TIERED APPROACH Different users of this guidance will wish to approach the selection of alternative fuels at different levels of detail. Therefore, this guidance is split into three tiers:  Tier 1 is high level guidance based on a number of key criteria, which is suitable for airport executives, senior managers, and their clients/service providers, and will help establish key messages as part of stakeholder engagement. Read the entire page →
From page 155... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-3 Table 56 – Alternative Fuels – Criteria and Definitions Criterion Definition Rating Change in PM2.5 emissions (H, M, L) The relative decrease in emissions compared with the dominant existing fuel/engine (or vehicle) Read the entire page →
From page 156... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-4 Criterion Definition Rating Additional infrastructure needed (H, M, L) What additional infrastructure is needed for the fuel to be used? Read the entire page →
From page 157... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-5 AvGas-Fueled Aircraft (Piston-engine Aircraft) While alternative AvGas fuel not is yet commercially available in the U.S., it could be in the future. Read the entire page →
From page 158... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-6 Table 59 – APU Alternative Fuels C ri te ri on C ha ng e PM 2. Read the entire page →
From page 159... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-7 Table 60 – GSE Alternative Fuels C ri te ri on C ha ng e PM 2. Read the entire page →
From page 160... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-8 own fleet, mechanisms such as structured parking lot charges and taxi licensing can help to encourage alternative fuel use in road vehicles. Other considerations are shown in Table 61. Read the entire page →
From page 161... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-9 TIER 2 Tier 2 is a spreadsheet-based tool "AIRPORT PM2.5 EMISSIONS ALTERNATIVE FUELS IMPACT TOOL.xlsx." It combines the results from the five case study airports analyzed in the ACRP 02-23 project in a format that allows the user to combine the emission impacts of different alternative fuel scenarios at those airports. The tool is limited to providing a range of results based on the five case study airports only. Read the entire page →
From page 162... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-10 2. Click "Go to INPUT" (Figure 23) Read the entire page →
From page 163... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-11 5. Once all the Percent of Total Fuel Usage have been entered correctly and there are no red error messages, click "Go to RESULTS" (Figure 24) Read the entire page →
From page 164... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-12 TIER 3 In some instances, an individual airport may wish to undertake its own, more-detailed study. The types of data that airports would need to collate to generate a base case emissions inventory and undertake dispersion modeling are summarized in Table 62. Read the entire page →
From page 165... ... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports F-13 Figure 25 – Methodology Flow Chart Read the entire page →

From page 68...

... Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports A-1 APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW This appendix discusses the following: • Airport sustainability plans, air quality and noise management reports • Monitoring of fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) in the vicinity of airports • Calculation of emissions at airports • Aircraft and auxiliary power unit (APU)