Research on Women's Issues in Transportation - Volume 2: Technical Papers (2005) / Chapter Skim
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TRANSPORTATION, ACCESS, AND COMMUNITY DESIGN 98709mvpTxt 41_88 9/20/05 5:05 PM Page 57
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5 9 Gender as a Determinant of Car Use Evidence from Germany Colin Vance, Sabine Buchheim, and Elmar Brockfeld, Institute of Transport Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin The determinants of car use in Germany are explored by analyzing a panel survey of travel diary data collected between 1994 and 2001. The analysis is conducted against the backdrop of two questions: Do women have more constrained access to cars than men, and if so, how is this constrained access mitigated or exacerbated by other determinants of car use such as community design, socioeconomic circumstances, and the demographic composition of the household?
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showing that women are far more reliant on public transportation for commuting, Gordon et al.
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individuals -- observed over the 5 days of the work week and the 3 years of the survey -- from 1,493 households. Overall, 28,059 individual person-day observations of both workers and nonworkers are included in the sample on which the model is estimated.
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terms were tested, the final specification presented includes only those that were statistically significant or that contributed to the overall fit of the model. Because of the nonlinearity of the probit model, some care must be taken with regard to the interpretation of the interaction terms.
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6 3GENDER AS A DETERMINANT OF CAR USE TABLE 2 Probit Model of Determinants of Automobile Use (n = 28,059) Model I Model II Variable Coefficient Estimate Marginal Effect Coefficient Estimate Marginal Effect female –0.2141 –0.0663 –0.2966 –0.0918 (0.2770)
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probability of car use, with the probability initially increasing until an age of about 52 and then tapering downward into retirement years. Moreover, though just out of the range of significance at the 10% level, the interaction term suggests that the effect of age may be mitigated by gender.
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probability of car use. This finding can again be interpreted as a reflection of the degree of competition -- in this case attenuated -- among household members.
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is unlikely, for example, that car access for child care and pickup services would substantially relax whatever other constraints underlie women's shorter commute distances. Hence, although car access decisions may, given the presence of children, be made on the basis of objective reasoning, this reasoning potentially emerges from a traditional division of responsibilities that dictates a preeminent role for women in child care.
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Turkey, 2004. www.cts.ucl.ac.uk/tsu/papers/BHPSW CTR04Final.pdf.
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6 8 Does Residential Density Affect the Travel "Gender Gap"? Noreen C
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United Kingdom, and France (1, p.
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some of the gender-based differences in travel patterns. One methodological issue common to large, stratified samples such as the NHTS is the influence of sample weights.
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effect on adult trip making. Both men and women make more trips with younger children, presumably because young children are either not able or not allowed to travel alone.
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shows that when trip purpose is considered, it is important to separate out trips in which mothers and fathers travel together. Because men make a higher proportion of their trips with children in the company of their spouse than women do, the distribution of trip purposes can look very different if this factor is not accounted for.
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perspectives to the child. What becomes clear is that children in urban areas are not better able to meet their own travel needs.
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on the NHTS. The author appreciates their assistance.
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26. Vliet, W
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7 6 Gender Differences in Travel Behavior of 13-, 14-, and 15-Year-Olds and Role of Built Environment Lisa M Weston, University of Texas, Austin Asubstantial body of research documents signifi-cant differences in the travel behavior of menand women.
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7 7 Connection Between Travel and Physical Activity Differences by Age and Gender Amy Helling, Georgia State University Concern over declines in physical activityamong Americans has grown in response toincreasing rates of obesity and related health problems. One possible explanation for the decline in physical activity is that driving has almost entirely replaced walking as a means of getting places.
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value of the exercise at the chosen destination outweighs the time and monetary cost of driving for them, and the net value exceeds that of exercising in or around home. The fact that many people do make trips to exercise suggests that opportunities away from home are attractive, perhaps because of specialized facilities, opportunities for socializing, and other factors.
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7 9 Gender Differences in Walking Behavior, Attitudes About Walking, and Perceptions of the Environment in Three Maryland Communities Kelly J Clifton and Andréa D
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and other subjective factors may also be key. Although land use and urban form may affect aggregate levels of pedestrian activity, it is not clear that attributes of the built environment are perceived and, ultimately, affect the behaviors of men and women in the same ways.
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activity. Analysis of gender differences in all these aspects of pedestrian activity can lead to a more comprehensive and thorough understanding of what motivates walking for each gender.
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Baltimore, this suburban town of 10,000 is relatively wealthy and largely white. Bel Air also has a sizable elderly population and high vehicle access.
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large population of pedestrians and bicyclists and two major rail transit stations. Similarly, the University of Maryland is clearly instrumental in contributing to the diverse ethnic distribution.
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most inclusive one. The total distance walked per day was estimated by using an ordered logit model.
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Surprisingly, the model results did not find any significant effects of feeling safe on walking for men or women. However, seeing people walk in the neighborhood has a positive association with the number of days that men walk.
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contrast, a number of the men said they did not walk at all, such as this Bel Air man: "I don't walk. I would like to, but just I work all the way in Pennsylvania, I drive 102 miles a day, I never seem to have the time.
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DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The study described shows that there are a number of significant gender-related differences in walking behavior, perceptions of the environment, and attitudes about walking. Clearly, the three issues are related, since behavior is influenced by attitudes and perceptions, and (perhaps)
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Rosenbloom, S
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8 9 Many travel behavior researchers have explored the links between land use characteristics and travel patterns. Several of them have demonstrated that certain patterns, such as density, mixed uses, and street connectivity, are associated with fewer or shorter vehicle trips, or both.
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built environment was conducted by the Transportation Research Board and the Institute of Medicine (1)
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concluded that creating accessible environments would help both men and women by allowing them to drive shorter distances or walk more often. She also emphasized the need to create safer environments, both in fact and in perception.
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For the purposes of this analysis, Land Use Categories 1 and 3 (LU 1 and 3) are considered to most closely resemble new urbanist neighborhoods.
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may be suppressing women's walking activity more than that of men. Analysis of the Baltimore NHTS data reveals some similar trends but with smaller or no differences between sexes, as shown in Table 2.
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to be at the densities in the middle range, which show the lowest levels of walking. This finding may reinforce the conclusions of other researchers that considering only density overlooks many other important factors.
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access to parkland as low (0 to 10% of land area) , medium (10% to 40%)
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that travel patterns for women with children are too complicated and time-sensitive to allow for walking even if the destinations were convenient, such as those in a new urbanist neighborhood. In fact, for households with children and at least one vehicle in LU 3, women made an average of 1.09 walking trips compared with 0.62 for men, a significant difference.3 These women also made a higher share of their total trips on foot (11.4% versus 6.7% for men)
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9 7WOMEN'S TRAVEL BEHAVIOR AND LAND USE TABLE 5 Poisson Model of Number of Walking Trips per Day: 2001 NHTS, Baltimore Add-on Model 1: All Records Model 2: Men Model 3: Women Variable Name Coefficient t-value Coefficient t-value Coefficient t-value Household Characteristics Vehicles per person –0.31*
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whether and how these policies might (or might not) achieve their goals.
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REFERENCES 1. Special Report 282: Does the Built Environment Influence Physical Activity?
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1 0 0 Gender Differences in Experience with and Fear of Crime in Relation to Public Transport Miranda Carter, United Kingdom Department for Transport, London Crime and fear of crime stop people from usingpublic transport, particularly at night. Toincrease the use of public transport, operators must tailor crime reduction programs and policies to the needs and experiences of different demographic groups with respect to both actual crime and fear of crime.
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1 0 1 Technology as a Strategy for Addressing Personal Security Concerns of Women on Public Transit Marsha Anderson Bomar, Texas Transportation Institute and Street Smarts Long concerned with reducing crime and improv-ing personal security on their systems, transitagencies now must also address system security and the threat of terrorist acts. As a way of increasing security, many agencies are increasing their use of technology, including the replacement or enhancement of security guards and police with cameras and other technical devices.
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1 0 2 Is It Safe to Walk Here? Design and Policy Responses to Women's Fear of Victimization in Public Places Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris, University of California, Los Angeles Fear of victimization and crime are important concerns for women in cities.
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social behavior from the actual physical surroundings.
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larly, women with physical or mental disabilities and lesbians are more fearful of assault in public spaces (12, 21)
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Although some studies did not find a strong link between perceived safety and physical inactivity (29, 38, 39) , studies that focused on women, children, and the elderly have been able to identify a strong relationship between feelings of risk and fear at the neighborhood level and high levels of inactivity (40)
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was for an organized nighttime event, such as a concert, attended by many people. Feelings of safety on the streets surrounding the parks varied widely by neighborhood, with Beverly Hills residents feeling the safest and Watts residents feeling the least safe of all.
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of individuals standing behind them at the bus stop. They were afraid of strangers gulping from bottles hidden in shabby brown bags.
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the greatest potential involved heavy reliance on design and physical changes that could help reduce criminal opportunities in the environment (48)
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Many dimensions of the physical environment should be considered in developing appropriate planning and design interventions, such as the characteristics of the population and its relevant needs as well as fears, the characteristics of the setting (residential neighborhood, city center, school, workplace, etc.) , and the desired types of activity in public spaces (72)
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Protecting Access Routes and Destinations Although some public spaces and facilities such as station platforms or parks may be sufficiently policed and protected, the route to these facilities may not always be perceived as safe. The planning and design of a recreational or transit facility should extend beyond the facility itself to incorporate the public environments that lead to or are closely associated with the facility (pathways, sidewalks leading to the destination, parking lots, park-and-ride lots, overheads, and underpasses)
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15. Loukaitou-Sideris, A
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1 1 3 Part-Time Employment and Travel Patterns of Women in the Netherlands Anne Boumans, AVV Transport Research Center, Netherlands Lucas Harms, Social and Cultural Planning Office, Netherlands This study evaluated trends in part-time employ-ment among Dutch women in order to evaluatethe impacts of these employment characteristics on travel patterns. The Netherlands has the highest rate of part-time employment in Europe.
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1 1 4 Gender Differences in Travel Patterns Role of Employment Status and Household Structure Claudia Nobis and Barbara Lenz, Institute of Transport Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin Many signs indicate that the mobility of women has changed significantly in the past several decades: young women possess a driver's license almost as often as young men do, and women's car availability and their average mileage per year have increased. At the same time, more and more women combine job and family.
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children as was the custom -- at least for West Germany -- for a long time. By using data from a national travel survey in Germany, the linkages between gender and mobility are explored against the backdrop of the following questions: Are the gender differences in travel patterns decreasing because of the continuous growth of women's car use?
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Republic of Germany. Since then this rate has increased continuously and has now reached 41% (BBE Cologne 2004)
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EMPIRICAL RESULTS: ACTIVITY AND MOBILITY PATTERNS The results are presented as follows. First, differences in travel patterns due to household structure are explored.
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employment status has for most of the variables examined the same effect for both sexes independent of the household type (Tables 3–5) : • Part-time employed persons as well as homemakers have a higher trip number per day than do fully employed persons.
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variables have several categories) , the differences between the groups are higher for male than for female subgroups.
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ever, women who are increasingly working full time like men only partly adopt man-specific behavior. The behavior of full-time working women is clearly different from that of part-time employed women and housewives.
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total car use (as passenger and as driver) is -- apart from leisure trips -- lower than that of men.
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Comparing full-time employees depending on household type, the results demonstrate that travel patterns of men are more or less stable for all household types. In contrast, the travel patterns of women differ a great deal.
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McGuckin, N., and E Murakami.
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