Genetically Engineered Crops Experiences and Prospects (2016) / Chapter Skim
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3 Genetically Engineered Crops Through 2015
3 Genetically Engineered Crops Through 2015
Pages 65-96
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From page 65... ...
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENETIC ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE People have been domesticating plants for at least 10,000 years. Early plant domestication involved selecting individual plants, fruits, seeds, inflorescences, or other propagules for characteristics of interest.
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. Teosinte is a grass species that has numerous lateral branches and cobs with 5–12 individually encapsulated kernels that drop to the ground when ripe.
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Three-base sequences in DNA specify amino acids. These sequences, or "words," form templates 1 Ionizing radiation was used to produce several varieties of rice, wheat, barley (Hordeum vulgare)
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From page 68... ...
techniques that allowed scientists to cut gene sequences from the DNA of one organism and splice them into the DNA of another organism (Cohen et al., 1973) , the path was paved for a new approach to increase genetic diversity for use in breeding organisms, including crops: genetic engineering.
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From page 69... ...
In cases in which a desirable GE line has unwanted mutations, elite germplasm is not amenable to genetic transformation, or the GE trait is desired in an array of different germplasms, the initial GE plant is crossed into plants with the desired genetic background and the backcrossing process is continued with selection for the introduced DNA until most or all genetic mutations, epigenetic changes, or undesired traits have been removed. The crown gall story also begins in the early 1900s, when a type of plant tumor was determined to be caused by a specific bacterium, A grobacterium tumefaciens.
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and direct protein synthesis by reading the genetic code and building a chain of amino acids (4)
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By the late 1970s, pioneering scientists found that they could remove the genes normally transferred by Agrobacterium that cause crown gall disease and replace them with genes that they wished to insert into plants cells, thus establishing the bacterium as a useful vector for plant genetic engineering. Soon they were genetically engineering plants using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of genes cloned into the T-DNA of the Ti plasmid.
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GENETICALLY ENGINEERED CROPS IN THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY Genetic engineering is a rapidly evolving technology. In 2015, grobacterium-mediated transformation described in the section above was A being overtaken by new approaches (discussed in Chapter 7)
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were grown in 2015. Genetic engineering had also been used to change the color of carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus)
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were grown in Colombia, Ecuador, and Australia and sold on wholesale cut flower markets in Canada, the United States, the European Union, Japan, A ustralia, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates (S. Chandler, RMIT University, personal communication, December 7, 2015; Florigene Flowers: Products.
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, but not all trait–crop combinations were in commercial production. For example, glufosinate-resistant sugar beet had been developed but was not commercially produced when the committee was writing its report.
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GENETICALLY ENGINEERED CROPS THROUGH 2015 77 TABLE 3-1 Genetically Engineered Traits Deregulated and Approved for Field Release in the United States as of 2015 Crop Scientific Year Crop Name Trait Approved Developer Alfalfa Medicago sativa Glyphosate HRa,b 2005 Monsanto & Forage Genetics Reduced Lignin 2014 Monsanto & Forage Genetics Apple Malus domestica Nonbrowning 2015 Okanagan Specialty Fruits Canola Brassica napus/ Oil Profile Alteredc 1994 Calgene Brassica rapa Glufosinate HR 1998 AgrEvo Glyphosate HR 1999 Monsanto Cichory Cichorium Male Sterilityc 1997 Bejo intybus Cotton Gossypium Bromoxynil HRc 1994 Calgene hirsutum Bt IRd 1995 Monsanto Glyphosate HR 1995 Monsanto Sulfonylurea HR 1996 DuPont Glufosinate HR 2003 Aventis Dicamba HR 2015 Monsanto 2,4-D HR 2015 Dow Flax Linum Tolerant to Soil 1999 University of usitatissimum Residues of Saskatchewan Sulfonylurea Herbicidec Maize Zea mays Glufosinate HR 1995 AgrEvo Bt IR 1995 Ciba Seeds Male Sterilityc 1996 Plant Genetic Systems Glyphosate HR 1997 Monsanto Increased Lysinec 2006 Monsanto Imidazolinone HRc 2009 Pioneer Alpha-Amylase 2011 Syngenta Drought Tolerance 2011 Monsanto ACCasee HR 2014 Dow 2,4-D HR 2014 Dow Increased Ear 2015 Monsanto Biomass Papaya Carica papaya Ring Spot Virus VRf 1996 Cornell University, University of Hawaii, USDA Agricultural Research Service continued
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Technologies Increased Yieldc 2013 Monsanto Imidazolinone HR 2014 BASF 2,4-D HR 2014 Dow HPPDg HRc 2014 Bayer/Syngenta Dicamba HR 2015 Monsanto Sugar beet Beta vulgaris Glufosinate HRc 1998 AgrEvo Glyphosate HR 1998 Novartis & Monsanto Tobacco Nicotiana Reduced nicotinec 2002 Vector tabacum
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Stacking of GE traits can be achieved either through genetic engineering or by conventional crossing of two plants, each of which has at least one GE trait.
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Genetic engineering has been used to create high-oleic acid soybean through gene silencing (Buhr et al., 2002)
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However, that crop was not being produced when the committee was writing its report. Genetically Engineered Traits Nearing Market Release At the time of the report's writing, several GE traits aimed at crop quality were ready to begin commercial production.
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Brazil's government-owned research corporation, EMBRAPA, devel oped a GE virus-resistant bean (Faria et al., 2014) that attained approval for commercial production in 2014.
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The Bt trait was stacked with either the potato leaf roll virus trait or the potato virus Y trait. The area of GE potato production increased from 1995 to 1998 to about 20,000 hectares, or 3.5 percent of U.S.
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found volunteerb maize growing in an Iowa soybean field that had been a field-test site for ProdiGene's GE maize during the previous growing season. ProdiGene failed to notify USDA, in accordance with permit conditions, about volunteer maize plants with tassels within 24 hours of their discovery.
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bought ProdiGene in August 2003, it assumed the unpaid portions of the USDA loan. In 2004, a USDA inspector found volunteer maize in baled oats that had been grown in the fallow zone alongside a ProdiGene test field that contained a maize variety engineered to produce pharmaceutical or industrial compounds.
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. EVOLUTION OF REGULATORY POLICIES FOR GENETICALLY ENGINEERED CROPS AND FOODS The section "Governance of Genetically Engineered Crops" in Chapter 2 and the section above contain many references to regulatory oversight BOX 3-3 The Unfolding Story of Bt Eggplant in Bangladesh, India, and the Philippines Eggplant is an economically and nutritionally important crop in South Asia and Southeast Asia, where it is widely cultivated and consumed.
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Policy Responses Due to Scientific and Public Concerns As alluded to in Chapter 1, concerns about potential biosafety risks posed by genetic engineering surfaced in the scientific community almost immediately after the publication of the Cohen et al.
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in October 1974. Immediately after the Asilomar conference, the NIH advisory committee met to develop research guidelines, which were issued in June 1976 as Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules (NIH, 1976)
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Different Policy Approaches to Genetically Engineered Crops and Food The differences in regulatory approaches among countries are discussed in Chapter 9. This section notes some salient points to provide context for later chapters.
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BOX 3-5 U.S. Regulatory Framework for Genetically Engineered Crops The Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology was estab lished in 1986 and describes the U.S.
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Some countries adopted regulatory systems fairly quickly; others still have not, which effectively has resulted in a ban on the import or cultivation of GE foods and crops. One author categorized firstgeneration regulatory systems for GE crops into four models according to their overall orientation to biotechnology (Paarlberg, 2000)
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1983. Prospects in plant genetic engineering.
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2014. Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States.
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2008. Bioengineered crops as tools for interna tional development: Opportunities and strategic considerations.
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Webinar Presentation to the National Academies of Sciences, Engi neering, and Medicine Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience and Future Prospects, November 6. Singer, M., and Soll, D
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Presenta tion to the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience and Future Prospects, December 10, Washington, DC.
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