Pathways to Urban Sustainability Challenges and Opportunities for the United States (2016) / Chapter Skim
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4 City Profiles
4 City Profiles
Pages 40-125
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From page 40... ...
Los Angeles and Chattanooga were selected for the committee's public data-gathering meetings due to their varying urban characteristics including size, geography, and contextual sustainability challenges such as water supply, air pollution, and energy. The additional seven city profiles, including New York City, New York; Vancouver, British Columbia; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Grand Rapids, Michigan; Cedar Rapids, Iowa; and Flint, Michigan, were selected to reflect the diversity of U.S.
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From page 41... ...
LOS ANGELES The Los Angeles metropolitan region, both at the city and county levels, faces a number of sustainability challenges, the most prominent of which pertain to water quality and supply, a severe drought, poor air quality, and urban sprawl. The city has confronted these obstacles by developing an aggressive results-based sustainability plan, called the Sustainable City pLAn, that combines specific targets and outcomes pertaining to the environment, the economy, and equity with multistakeholder engagement across institutions and departments, as well as innovative new science-based technologies and solutions.
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From page 42... ...
18.7 40.8 ENV Existing Tree Canopy (% of land cover) 21% 25% ENV Roadway Fatalities (per 100 million annual vehicle miles traveled)
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From page 43... ...
The history of water in the Los Angeles metropolitan region has shaped the character
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From page 44... ...
Air pollution and smog were first recognized as issues of concern in 1943, though the attribution of primary cause to automobiles did not occur until a few years later. Over the next decade, the Los Angeles metropolitan region led the way in attempting to ameliorate these issues by establishing a Bureau of Smoke Control in the city in 1945, and an Air Pollution Control District in the county in 1947.
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From page 45... ...
In the city of Los Angeles, 22 percent of the population lives below the poverty level, compared to 17.8 percent in Los Angeles County, 15.9 percent in the state of California, and 14.5 percent nationally (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015b)
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From page 46... ...
. MAJOR SUSTAINABILITY EFFORTS The Los Angeles metropolitan region, as described above using both city and county examples, faces several key sustainability challenges, including water quality and supply issues, a severe drought, poor air quality, urban sprawl, poverty, high housing costs, and severe natural hazards.
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From page 47... ...
The Water Conservation Act of 2009 set a goal of reducing per capita urban water use by 10 percent by December 31, 2015, and by 20 percent by December 31, 2020, while the Water Action Plan, released in 2013, provides specific measures for improving water supply and quality in the state (Gold et al., 2015c)
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From page 48... ...
. The Port of Los Angeles is also in the process of fully implementing the San Pedro Bay Ports Clean Air Action Plan, while Los Angeles World Airports has been focusing on a comprehensive strategy to green Los Angeles metro area airports, including use of alternative fuels and evaluation methods for aircraft-related greenhouse gas (GHG)
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From page 49... ...
. Other impacts include state regulation such as Assembly Bill 32, the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, which mandated the state to reduce its GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020.
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From page 50... ...
To transform Los Angeles into a more sustainable and efficient metropolis, the city's living Climate LA Program document and Sustainable City pLAn both outline a number of goals regarding renewable energy, green buildings, and energy efficiency for the city. Currently, the LADWP's energy resources consist of 20 percent renewables (mostly wind at 13 percent)
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From page 51... ...
Many of those policy innovations have spread worldwide. Beginning with statutes passed by the California legislature starting in 2002 and continuing through today, California is adopting a comprehensive set of policies, regulations, and incentives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with particular emphasis on those associated with transportation, vehicles, fuels, and mobility." Nevertheless, other lessons learned from the Los Angeles case include those sustainability challenges that are still lacking in innovative solutions.
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From page 52... ...
52 PATHWAYS TO URBAN SUSTAINABILITY Imported Water Purchases Locally-Sourced Water Avg Daily Water Use Per LA County Beach Water Capita Quality (Wet) 385,501 acre-feet 19.6 % 113 gallons 1.8 grade points on track on track on track measuring Detail Detail Detail Detail Air Pollution Zero-Emissions Vehicles Childhood Asthma Food Access 40 nonattainment days 0.7 % of vehicles 31.4 ER visits 414,384 residents measuring measuring measuring measuring Detail Detail Detail Detail New Housing Transit-Oriented New Housing Rent-Burdened Households Average Daily VMT Per Capita 25,929 units 43 % of new units 61.5 % 14.7 miles on track measuring measuring measuring Detail Detail Detail Detail FIGURE 4-3 A sample of the performance tracking dashboard of sustainability metrics related to the nearest-term goals identified in the Los Angeles Sustainable City pLAn.
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From page 53... ...
Water metering and water reclamation programs – resourced by Proposition 1 – Water Action Plan, 2013; LADWP established its only renewable portfolio standard. Local to Global Regulation by the California Air Resources Board – reduce diesel particulate matter Assembly Bill 32, Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006.
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From page 54... ...
6) , • Our Sustainable City," committed to a "goal to reduce greenhouse gases by 80 percent by 2050 (80X50)
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New York City and the greater New York metropolitan region have the highest population and population density in the United States (Powell, 2014)
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. This is many times higher than New York State's population density of 411.2 persons per square mile (2010)
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From page 57... ...
10.8 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from 1.8 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health AA AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 58... ...
Reducing GHG emissions from the built environment, the city's largest source of locally generated emissions, is fundamental to managing climate change and building resilience for extreme weather events. Land-use decisions over decades, many of which were incremental, resulted in construction on and extension of low-lying areas that have since been vulnerable to water inundation from more intensive storms, sea-level rise (SLR)
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From page 59... ...
Mazria (2015) offered a guide to proposed changes in the New York City Energy Conservation Code to support energy efficiency and renewable energy in order to catalyze a reduction of GHG emissions from the built environment that is largely controlled by the private sector and nonprofit or civic sector.
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From page 60... ...
gross city product, workforce characteristics, and income levels. As a result of the mid-1970s fiscal crisis, the city embarked upon a strategy of diversification of lending sources through the New York State Municipal Assistance Corporation.
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From page 61... ...
In the marine sector, the size and capacity of marine ports are measured as number of containers and twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) , calls, tonnage (as metric tons)
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From page 62... ...
. Climate and Weather Risks Locally generated GHG emissions are targeted to be 80 percent lower by 2050 than in 2005 (80x50)
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New York City's reported achievements, as measured against its sustainability goals, are in energy efficiency, energy-use analyses, promotion of alternative energy sources, GHG emissions reductions (19 percent between 2005 and 2012) , changes in the Air Pollution Control Code for air quality improvements, solid waste reduction, and other cleanup efforts (NYC, 2014a)
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From page 64... ...
. The MTA has developed and implemented a number of sustainability initiatives, including energy and water conservation and renewable energy projects (MTA, 2009)
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From page 65... ...
. To promote renewable energy, a number of financial incentives exist for solar panel installations, such as property tax credits and New York State's sales tax exemptions and rebates.
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From page 66... ...
5-6) : • "Growing, Thriving City" through "a dynamic urban economy" • "just and equitable city" through jobs and "lifting 800,000 New Yorkers out of poverty or A near poverty by 2025" • A "sustainable city" with a "goal to reduce greenhouse gasses by 80 percent by 2050" • A "resilient city"
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From page 67... ...
Increased tree canopy through the planting of a million trees. Data Gaps Citywide resource usage and emission inventories.
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From page 68... ...
The city was rebuilt and Vancouver's waterfront became home to heavy industry that, in turn, resulted in contamination of the soil and water. The midpoint of the 20th century proved to be a turning point for the city as a shift in public consciousness and environmental awareness prompted residents to see Vancouver's natural surroundings not as a resource to be exploited, but as an asset to be protected.
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From page 69... ...
6.6 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from 0.8 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health AA+ AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 70... ...
. Greenest City Action Plan provides the top-level strategy, under which a host of enabling strategies, policies, programs, and regulations have been and are being developed.
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From page 71... ...
. The Action Plan strives to have all existing buildings reduce energy use and GHG emissions by 20 percent over 2007 levels and requires all buildings constructed after 2020 to be carbon neutral in operations.
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. This provided Vancouver with a long period of socioeconomic stability, relative to other parts of North America, for the duration of the delivery of the Greenest City Action Plan.
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From page 73... ...
Strong Cross-sectoral Partnerships Partnerships with the other levels of government, energy utilities, academia, not-for-profit organizations, and business help to mobilize resources and get results on the ground. For example, in 2010 the City of Vancouver partnered with the University of British Columbia to offer the Greenest City Scholars Program, which enables graduate students to work on sustainability projects with the city in support of the Greenest City Action Plan goals.
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From page 74... ...
At the midpoint in the delivery of the plan, positive progress has been made in all areas, most notably the following: • Citywide GHG emissions are down 7 percent over 2007 levels; • Waste to landfill or incinerator is down 18 percent over 2008 levels; • Water consumption per capita is down 16 percent over 2006 levels; • Half of all trips in Vancouver are made by foot, bike, or transit; • Vehicle kilometers traveled per resident is down 21 percent over 2007 levels; • 37,000 new trees have been planted since 2010; • Local food production, processing, and distribution capacity has increased by 36 percent since 2010; • Zero water and air quality exceedences occurred over the past year; and • Green jobs are up 19 percent over 2010 levels (City of Vancouver, 2015a)
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From page 75... ...
Strategies Greenest City 2020 Action Plan, approved in 2011. Passed a motion to be a city that runs completely on renewable energy by 2050.
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76 PATHWAYS TO URBAN SUSTAINABILITY trends in Philadelphia, however, are headed in the right direction and the city appears to be in the midst of an emerging recovery. BACKGROUND Philadelphia is, in many ways, a prototype U.S.
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11.6 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from 1.8 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health A+ AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 78... ...
Philadelphia is also closely exploring further roles city government can play in reducing citywide GHG emissions, whether through improved energy efficiency or transition to clean energy sources.18 The 2015 Philadelphia sustainability plan has had other innovative activities in terms of the environment. Although it is unclear if this was directly due to its sustainability plan, the city has improved its air quality in moving toward the attainment of federal standards with a 70 percent reduction in unhealthy air quality index days (from 20 such days in 2008 to 6 such days in 2014)
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From page 79... ...
CITY PROFILES 79 FIGURE 4-8 Philadelphia's "Park of a Thousand Pieces" benefits stormwater and flood management and has also been shown to result in health and safety co-benefits such as crime reduction. SOURCE: Philadelphia Water, 2016; Popp, 2011.
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From page 80... ...
The city has also purchased and generated 15 percent of the electricity it uses from alternative energy sources, including national wind renewable energy credits, a new biogas co-generation plant, and roof photovoltaic panels. These activities may be what has led an independent evaluation to conclude that, from 2001 to 2010, Philadelphia had the most improved building carbon footprint of the 100 largest cities in the United States (see Figure 4-9)
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From page 81... ...
improved building carbon footprints. SOURCE: Brown and Cox, 2015; Renewable Energy Global Innovations, 2015.
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From page 82... ...
. This campaign has brought together public health and city planning sectors, synergistically focusing them on environmental initiatives to change contextual circumstances and situations that have traditionally fostered poor health for many Philadelphians.
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From page 83... ...
However, the latest numbers show that citywide building energy consumption has significantly increased in stark contrast to reduction targets set by the city. In addition, Philadelphia remains far below its own GHG emission target, and it is scarcely on a path to reduce its citywide GHG emissions 80 percent by 2050, the suggested target for cities globally.
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From page 84... ...
Many of the city's greening initiatives have been scientifically evaluated and shown to be co-benefits affecting the city's triple-bottom-line sustainability goals. Partnerships Philadelphia's Center City District has spurred a population influx reportedly making it the second-most densely populated U.S.
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From page 85... ...
PITTSBURGH Pittsburgh's success as an industrial center in the 19th century has created a legacy of sustainability issues to be addressed in the 21st century. Diversification of its economy, a shift to cleaner energy sources, and successful public-private partnerships have helped Pittsburgh improve the metrics of several sustainability indicators like air pollution and water quality, but the city needs to continue its efforts to reach its sustainability goals.
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From page 86... ...
2012. Historical carbon foot printing and implications for sustainability planning: A case study of the Pittsburgh Region.
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From page 87... ...
14.0 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from 2.7 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health A+ AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 88... ...
GHG emissions in the county are shown in Figure 4-11. Figure 4-12 shows more recent emissions amounts, as reported in the 2008 Pittsburgh Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory (Pittsburgh Climate Initiative, 2008)
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From page 89... ...
Reprinted with permission from the Pittsburgh Climate Initiative. R03046, Figure 4-12 FIGURE 4-13 Pennsylvania energy consumption estimates by energy source.
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From page 90... ...
. In addition, the city government purchases 15 percent of its electricity from renewable energy and utilizes solar energy on its facilities (Pittsburgh Climate Initiative, 2012)
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From page 91... ...
. Transportation also features as a prominent issue area in the Pittsburgh Climate Action Plan, with recommendations focusing on reducing the number of single-occupancy vehicles commuting to Pittsburgh, encouraging public transit use and bicycle commuting, and reducing commuter and travel footprints (Pittsburgh Climate Initiative, 2012)
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From page 92... ...
Reprinted with permission from the City of Pittsburgh. R03046, Figure 4-15 B/W OTHER SIGNIFICANT ACTIVITIES Public-Private Partnerships Beginning in 1945 and extending through the 1950s, Pittsburgh experienced Renaissance I, which focused on air pollution control and redevelopment of the downtown area.
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From page 93... ...
Deployment of new technologies developed locally is a feature of this new set of partnerships. More recently, the Pittsburgh Climate Action Plan Version 2.0 outlines a number of recommendations which focus on community and business partnerships (Pittsburgh Climate Initiative, 2012)
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From page 94... ...
Green infrastructure projects could simultaneously help with issues of air pollution, water pollution, GHG emissions, and urban heat islands. Partnerships Numerous partnerships with private sector, nonprofit organizations, corporations, universities, and other government agencies.
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From page 95... ...
Based on these data, Chattanooga is the fourth largest city in Tennessee, and one of the largest 150 cities in the country. While the majority of Chattanoogans are white, the City of Chattanooga has a diverse racial composition: 19.8 percent are black or African American, 5.1 percent are Hispanic or Latino, and 2.1 percent are Asian (Table 4-11)
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From page 96... ...
13.5 10.2 ENV: Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from residential energy consumption) 3.1 3.4 ECON: Financial Health AAA AA+ ECON: Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 97... ...
MAJOR SUSTAINABILITY EFFORTS Today's postindustrial Chattanooga economy and environment are in stark contrast to the city it was half a century ago, with clean air, new investments in high-tech businesses and clean manufacturing, and an emphasis on sustainability. The "Chattanooga way" (see Box 4-6)
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From page 98... ...
. Land Use and Transportation Revitalization efforts to create a sustainable city began in the 1980s.
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From page 99... ...
. The Chattanooga Climate Action Plan focuses on four areas: energy efficiency, education and policy, healthy communities, and natural resources.
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From page 100... ...
100 PATHWAYS TO URBAN SUSTAINABILITY FIGURE 4-17 Chattanooga in 1970 (above) and 2015 (below)
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From page 101... ...
Of particular note are its unique fiber optic and smart grid networks. In 2011, EPB completed the installation of 8,000 miles of fiber optic cables, making it the first "gigabit city" offering gigabit speeds as a standard residential fiber optic option.
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From page 102... ...
The climate action plan: Creation of a Chattanooga Office of Sustainability. Data Gaps Implementation Chattanooga passed an Air Pollution Control Ordinance.
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From page 103... ...
triple-bottom-line indicators create a framework for sustainability that illustrates the co-benefits of multitargeted goals -- they allow for broader and interrelated work plans. BACKGROUND A historic manufacturing city 30 miles due east of Lake Michigan, Grand Rapids is the second largest city in Michigan with a city population of 193,792.
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From page 104... ...
Spectrum Health is the largest employer in western Michigan with over 23,000 employees. Grand Rapids is the fourth largest cluster of medical device suppliers in the Midwest and the eighth in biopharmaceuticals (Longworth, 2014)
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From page 105... ...
12.2 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from 4.7 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health AA- AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 106... ...
The co-benefits of the water conservation effort are improved water quality, less wastewater to burden surface water levels, more efficient technology on water pumping that decreases GHG emissions, more manageable stream flows, which reduce the chance of neighborhood flooding, and more recreation and commerce related to the Grand River (City of Grand Rapids, 2015b)
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From page 107... ...
Based on the data from the inventory, the city has identified very specific targets for reducing GHG emissions with the overall goal of meeting the obligations of the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement (City of Grand Rapids, 2009)
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From page 108... ...
Integrity of Green Infrastructure The integrity of green infrastructure is a cross-cutting theme in the Grand Rapids Sustainability Plan and in the city's Master Plan. The co-benefits of improvements in both the built and natural environments support a long-term response to climate change through the protection and maintenance of healthy ecosystems and habitats by increasing the tree canopy and the diversity of trees and planting low-maintenance grasses and native plants in parks and public spaces.
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From page 109... ...
While this kind of integrated sustainability effort lies beyond the scope of a local government planning agency, continued and consistent municipal leadership provides an important foundation for sustainability efforts. Several key findings emerged from the work in Grand Rapids that can be helpful as other mid-sized cities consider sustainability planning: 1.
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From page 110... ...
TABLE 4-14 Example Highlighting Actions for Grand Rapids that Illustrate Steps in Urban Sustainability Roadmap (see Chapter 3, Figure 3-1) City Grand Rapids Adopt Principles P1, P2, P3, P4 Opportunities and Constraints Opportunities: Reduction of carbon footprint, water protection and conservation, stakeholder engagement, green infrastructure, and expanding economic opportunities through health care and tourism.
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From page 111... ...
The Green Grand Rapids process to update the Master Plan around quality of life and green infrastructure issues has engaged hundreds of community members with its user-friendly "Green Pursuits" that allows citizens to visualize the desired changes in a board-game map process and then report back at "Green Gathering" sessions. Feedback Since the city adopted its first Sustainability Plan in 2006, there have been five target updates as well as a Climate Resiliency Report published.
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From page 112... ...
Other important employers are the defense and commercial avionics company Rockwell Collins and the insurance company Aegon. Partly because of Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids has more engineers per capita than any other city in the United States.
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From page 113... ...
11.1 10.2 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from not available 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health Aa1 AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 114... ...
OTHER SIGNIFICANT ACTIVITIES An analysis of the sustainability indicators indicates that Cedar Rapids fares well compared to the other cities in this analysis. Particulate matter is in the midrange for the case-study cities while the air quality index is one of the best.
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From page 115... ...
. They classified Cedar Rapids, along with Grand Rapids, as resurgent cities.
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From page 116... ...
116 PATHWAYS TO URBAN SUSTAINABILITY FIGURE 4-21 Map showing the city of Flint administrative boundary and location in Michigan. SOURCE: Prepared by Brent Heard, Consultant to the STS Program.
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From page 117... ...
12.2 11.9 ENV Residential Carbon Footprint (metric tons of CO2 per capita from not available 3.4 residential energy consumption) ECON Financial Health no rating AA+ ECON Average Residential Electricity Rate (cents/kWh)
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From page 118... ...
The city hopes that Imagine Flint will result in walkable neighborhoods with green spaces and mixed-income housing; a diversified economy that encourages youth to stay in Flint and attracts new residents; and increased public safety and a reduction in crime and gun violence. The city's carbon footprint should be lowered through improved mass transit, investment in energy-efficient buildings, and attention to natural systems in the Flint River watershed.
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From page 119... ...
(Flint scores 25 hours compared to 7 for Cedar Rapids and 85 for Los Angeles.) Thus, the sustainability indicators show mixed results for Flint.
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From page 120... ...
Mixed neighborhoods and neighborhood centers, energy efficient buildings, encourage walking and bike use, mass transit, enhance natural systems through responsible planning and development (Flint River watershed, parks, and open space) , reduce the city's carbon footprint, safe neighborhoods, reduce energy costs, strengthen education, reduce number of residents with low skills, diversify the economy, improve public safety and reduce crime, reduce gun violence, develop a local food system, expand arts and cultural activities, prepare a 5-year strategic plan.
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From page 121... ...
Nine cities were selected -- Los Angeles, California; New York City, New York; Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Flint, Michigan; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Grand Rapids, Michigan; Vancouver, Canada; Chattanooga, Tennessee; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania -- to represent a variety of urban regions, with consideration given to city size, proximity to coastal and other waterways, susceptibility to hazards, primary industry, water scarcity, energy intensity and reliability, vertical density, transportation systems, and social equity issues. Each of the nine cities incorporates urban sustainability metrics and indicators through its approaches to unique and shared sustainability challenges.
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From page 122... ...
In terms of barriers, there are many areas in which the cities would like to make a bigger impact, but their efforts are hindered by policies at the state and national levels. Each of the smaller cities in population size and density -- Chattanooga, Grand Rapids, Cedar Rapids, and Flint -- has experienced a different path to sustainability and at present has succeeded differentially toward its intended goals.
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From page 123... ...
CITY PROFILES 123 FIGURE 4-22 Spider charts comparing the nine profile cities across various metrics. SOURCE: Committee generated.
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From page 124... ...
In the event that a high value for a metric was contradictory to sustainability (e.g., high PM2.5, percentage below poverty, violent crime rate, average commute time to work, and residential carbon footprint) , then the additive inverse was used for that value.
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From page 125... ...
A temporal analysis of urban sustainability trends might ultimately strengthen the findings herein, but given the committee's resource and time constraints, this too must be subject to future inquiry and research.
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