Communicating Science Effectively A Research Agenda (2017) / Chapter Skim
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3 The Nature of Science-Related Public Controversies
3 The Nature of Science-Related Public Controversies
Pages 51-66
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From page 51... ...
. Public debate about the issues -- among the scientific community, policy makers, and citizens -- can help uncover common ground among people holding diverse sets of values.
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. This is why a scientific issue can be controversial in the United States but not in Europe, as is the case with climate 1 lack of clarity about how to interpret scientific findings also can be due to problems A within the scientific community that may include publication bias, misuse of statistics, issues of replication, stating conclusions beyond the data presented, and using causal language when not justified by the study design (see, e.g., Boutron et al., 2014; Gelman and Loken, 2013; Ioannidis, 2005)
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These three features present major challenges to communicating science effectively under conditions of controversy and are discussed in turn in the sections below. In each case, the discussion draws on examples from the research literature and points to implications both for communicators and directions for future research.
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Understanding the Role of Beliefs and Values of Individuals As discussed in Chapter 2, when science and emerging technologies challenge people's beliefs and threaten deeply held values, their attitudes toward science and scientific information can be affected (Blank and Shaw, 2015; Lupia, 2013; McCright et al., 2016) .2 Across different science-related controversies, from climate change to GMOs to nanotechnology to genetic testing, people on opposite sides of the political spectrum who are demonstrably knowledgeable about the science may have opposite perceptions of or expressed support for the science (Cacciatore et al., 2012; Hart and Nisbet, 2012; Ho et al., 2008; Hornsey et al., 2016; Nisbet, 2014)
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. Citizens who choose their faith commitment over scientific accounts are not necessarily denying the science per se and may be well aware of the relevant scientific views (National Science Board, 2016b)
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Tailoring Messages from Science for Understanding and Persuasion Tailoring scientific messages for different audiences is one approach to avoiding a direct challenge to strongly held beliefs while still offering accurate information. People tend to be more open-minded about information presented in a way that appears to be consistent with their values (Corner et al., 2012; Kahan et al., 2010; Lord et al., 1979; Maibach et al., 2010; McCright et al., 2016; Munro and Ditto, 1997)
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. In a review of the literature covering roughly 1,000 studies related to environmental issues, a National Academies report offers principles of effective public engagement and concludes: When done well, public participation improves the quality and legitimacy of a decision and builds the capacity of all involved to engage in the policy process.
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Further, given that best practices in public engagement suggest that it take place early on, research is needed to examine to what extent and in what ways communicating science in formal public participation processes can be effective once an issue has become contentious and the science related to the issue controversial. PERCEPTIONS OF UNCERTAINTY As noted in Chapter 1, some science-related controversies arise because the science around a topic is or is perceived by many to be uncertain or unclear.
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In other cases, however, particularly those involving issues with wide societal implications or issues, such as food and nutrition, that affect personal interests, more of the public begins to encounter and pay attention to the relevant science and invoke it when participating in public debate. Examples include controversies involving energy and environmental policy, stem cell therapy, and gene editing technology.
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, in part because uncertainty is inherent in scientific inquiry and because it is this uncertainty that is often exploited during controversies. As with other aspects of the science of science communication, however, much of the advice available to practitioners regarding risk communication under conditions of uncertainty or in the context of a crisis or controversy is based on case studies, personal experience, and face-valid principles lacking rigorous empirical testing.
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Examples include current understanding from science about the human contribution to climate change, the health benefits of vaccines, and the validity of evolution. Some misunderstanding can arise from poor communication or from any of the challenges to understanding scientific information discussed in Chapter 2.
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Such repeated communications can occur in many places, involve diverse people, and take various forms -- conversations, use of social media, presentations, advertising, communication campaigns, and media interviews (see van der Linden et al., 2015)
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Although it can be difficult for the scientific enterprise to self-correct, science as an institution possesses norms and practices that restrain scientists and offer means for policing and sanctioning those who violate its standards. In contrast, as discussed earlier, those who are not bound by scientific norms have at times intentionally mischaracterized scientific information to serve their financial or political interests (Dunlap and Jacques, 2013; Farrell, 2016; McCright, 2000; McCright and Dunlap, 2003, 2010; Michaels, 2006, 2008; Michaels and Monforton, 2005; Oreskes and Conway, 2011)
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From page 64... ...
One study, for example, found that people who had never heard of carbon capture and storage could be influenced by uninformative arguments either for or against the technology, and that those manipulated feelings persisted even after these people had read carefully balanced communications designed to educate them (Bruine de Bruin and Wong-Parodi, 2014)
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They suggest that gaining sufficient exposure, engaging with audiences early on, and then applying a variety of communication approaches over an extended period of time can help ensure that the perspectives of science are heard among the amplified voices that may characterize science-related controversies. Working with Opinion Leaders to Inform and Persuade Another way to bring accurate scientific information to the public is to work with opinion leaders -- politicians, business leaders, community figures, journalists, celebrities, and others with a proven capacity to influence people's views.
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. Of course, scientists themselves can serve as trusted opinion leaders, sparking conversations and the sharing of information among coworkers, friends, neighbors, and acquaintances both in their everyday interactions and in social media.
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