Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English Promising Futures (2017) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
6 The Development of English Language Proficiency in Grades K-12
6 The Development of English Language Proficiency in Grades K-12
Pages 215-252
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 215... ...
. These beliefs and attitudes have reflected a combination of what might be regarded as common sense and scientific theories about what is best for ELs with respect to learning English.
|
From page 216... ...
The influence of these beliefs and attitudes has been most evident in educational programs during the elementary and secondary school years, but has also impacted thinking about preschool education as more and more children attend preschool programs. Although the focus in this chapter is on the development of English proficiency, it is important to point out that language proficiency is not necessarily the only or even the most important barrier to academic success among ELs.
|
From page 217... ...
Empirical evidence concerning the typical time required to achieve levels of proficiency in English that would permit ELs to benefit from allEnglish instruction also is necessary to establish reasonable expectations about how long ELs require additional support in learning English for academic purposes. A common view is that young learners are efficient and effective second language learners who require little systematic or long-term 1 This chapter is adapted from a paper commissioned by the committee for this study (Lindholm-Leary, 2015)
|
From page 218... ...
, for example, allowed ELs 1 year in classes where they received specialized support in learning English before being integrated into regular classrooms with native speakers of English. There is growing recognition that educational research on and educational policies and practices with respect to the English language development of ELs need to distinguish between language for social communication and language for academic purposes.
|
From page 219... ...
BOX 6-1 Example of Academic Language T: Many things are manufactured in California, from airplanes to computer chips. Suppose you wanted to find out how many people worked in manufacturing jobs in California for the last 25 years.
|
From page 220... ...
For the most part, the tests used to make these determinations have not been based on empirically validated theories of language proficiency for academic purposes and its development.
|
From page 221... ...
The second section examines factors that influence reclassification rates among ELs in grades K-12. This is followed by sections on retention and loss of the home language of ELs and on cross-linguistic aspects of ELs' language development.
|
From page 222... ...
The challenge of developing valid tests is complicated further by the fact that the expression of academic language proficiency, by definition, ultimately depends on knowledge and skills in specific content domains. As a result, poor performance on a specific test of academic language proficiency may reflect a lack of relevant and specific content knowledge rather than a lack of broadly based academic language proficiency.
|
From page 223... ...
As noted above, however, many if not most students who were tested while in middle school had begun school in the United States in the elementary grades, so it is difficult to isolate middle school from prior elementary school effects. Elementary and Middle School ELs (K-8)
|
From page 224... ...
There are likely several explanations for the variation found in these studies, including different conceptualizations of English language proficiency, technical differences among the tests themselves, and possibly student background characteristics, among other factors. Median/average years to reclassification likely underestimates how quickly ELs achieve proficiency because these estimates are based on ELs who were (re)
|
From page 225... ...
These estimates are corroborated by earlier reviews of research on this issue, which indicate that it can take ELs 5-7 years to achieve proficiency in English for academic purposes (Cummins, 1981; Lindholm-Leary and Borsato, 2006; National Research Council, 1997; Thomas and Collier, 2002)
|
From page 226... ...
. These differences may be due, at least in part, to differences in socioeconomic status since, as the authors note, students in schools with a relatively high percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch take longer to achieve proficiency in English relative to students in schools with lower percentages of such students (Hakuta et al., 2000)
|
From page 227... ...
401) concludes that "obtaining oral language proficiency in the L2 on par with native speakers can take most of the elementary school years" and furthermore, that individual children vary considerably in their rate of L2 development.
|
From page 228... ...
The author also reports that students who were older at school entry were less likely than those who were younger to be reclassified within the first year. However, the decline in reclassification in subsequent grades was lower for ELs who were older at school entry than for those who were younger, suggesting that while older ELs make a relatively slow start in learning English, they show relatively better progress than their younger peers in subsequent grades.
|
From page 229... ...
This was true despite the fact that students in the dual language programs had had less instruction and a later start in learning English in school. Again, this finding may reflect the transfer of language, including literacy and cognitively based language skills, acquired in L1 to English.
|
From page 230... ...
studied five groups of Latino children of immigrants to examine their dual language profiles from kin dergarten to grade 2: (1) dual-proficient, (2)
|
From page 231... ...
There was a significant positive correlation between length of time in the United States and ratings of proficiency. However, even after 7 years of schooling in the United States, only 7 percent scored at norm for English speakers on the English language proficiency subtests of the Bilingual Verbal Abilities Test (Muñoz-Sandoval et al., 1998)
|
From page 232... ...
Overall, 60 percent of the Latino students became long-term ELs. Relative to those in the other program types, Latino ELs enrolled in dual language programs were reclassified as English-proficient at a lower rate in the elementary grades but had higher overall reclassification rates; higher English language arts academic achievement scores; and higher English reading, writing, speaking, and listening test results in the long run.
|
From page 233... ...
has remained at the same English language proficiency level for 2 or more consecutive prior years, or has regressed to a lower English language proficiency level; and (4) for students in grades 6 to 9, inclusive, has scored at the "Standard Not Met" level on the prior-year administration of the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress-English Language Arts (CAASPP-ELA)
|
From page 234... ...
LTELs often are proficient in everyday uses of oral English but have low levels of proficiency in academic language and literacy in both English and their L1. Commonly, LTEL students reach a plateau at intermediate or lower levels of language proficiency (Olsen, 2010)
|
From page 235... ...
. Like LTELs, these students often exhibit low levels of English language proficiency and academic achievement compared with their peers.
|
From page 236... ...
. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RECLASSIFICATION RATES AMONG ENGLISH LEARNERS IN GRADES K-12 Thus far, little attention has been paid to differences among individual ELs and subgroups of ELs whose backgrounds differ.
|
From page 237... ...
, ethnic/racial/linguistic background, prior schooling, density of minority students in the school/community, parental education, and language education program (dual language or all-English)
|
From page 238... ...
. Although not specific to oral language proficiency, research findings from Kieffer (2008)
|
From page 239... ...
. All five found that English proficiency scores at program entry had a positive influence on later English proficiency scores and reclassification rates.
|
From page 240... ...
In light of these findings, it is important to note that when the minority language of ELs is not supported at home or in school, it often undergoes attrition or may be underdeveloped relative to age-matched native speakers of the language (Block, 2012; Cohen and Wickens, 2015; Collins, 2014; Espinosa, 2007, 2010, 2013; Hammer et al., 2008, 2009, 2014; Jackson et al., 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2014; Mancilla-Martinez and Lesaux, 2011; Oller and Eilers, 2002; Pham and Kohnert, 2014; Proctor et al., 2010)
|
From page 241... ...
Children who used only Spanish with their parents had the strongest Spanish skills, while those who used both Spanish and English demonstrated significant loss. More recent work confirms that ELs often show poorer mastery of the morphosyntax of the L1 relative to native speakers (see Montrul and Potowski [2007]
|
From page 242... ...
. Participation in dual language school programs does not guarantee that ELs will continue to develop age-appropriate academic language in their L1.
|
From page 243... ...
This interaction has been found in multiple domains of language learning and use, including acquisition, cognitive representation and processing, and use. That this process characterizes even 2- to 3-yearold ELs indicates that it is an unconscious one that is a by-product of being bilingual (see the discussion in Chapter 4 on code switching in preschoolage dual language learners)
|
From page 244... ...
Some language groups consistently take longer to attain proficiency and do so at lower rates than other groups, although variation is found within cultural and linguistic groups. This variation in time to reclassification may be due to differences in how academic language proficiency is assessed, in the adequacy of the tests
|
From page 245... ...
Educational programs that provide systematic support for the development of ELs' L1 often facilitate and enhance their development of skills in English, especially literacy. Conclusion 6-5: Evidence indicates that English learners are at risk of losing their L1 when exposure to English begins early -- during the preschool or early school years; this is true even when students are in dual language programs.
|
From page 246... ...
A descriptive study of English language proficiency assessment classifications for English-language learners and native English speakers in fifth grade. Language Testing, 33(1)
|
From page 247... ...
. Dual language development of Latino children: Effect of instructional program type and the home and school language environment.
|
From page 248... ...
. The language and literacy development of young dual language learners: A critical review.
|
From page 249... ...
. Achievement and language proficiency of Latino students in dual language programmes: Native English speakers, fluent English/ previous ELLs, and current ELLs.
|
From page 250... ...
. Learning English bilingually: Age of onset of exposure and rate of acquisition among English language learners in a bilingual education program.
|
From page 251... ...
: Educational outcomes and opportunities for English language learners. University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute Newsletter, 13(1)
|
From page 252... ...
. A longitudinal analysis of academic English proficiency outcomes for adolescent English language learners in the United States.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.