Proactive Policing Effects on Crime and Communities (2018) / Chapter Skim
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2 The Landscape of Proactive Policing
2 The Landscape of Proactive Policing
Pages 41-80
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From page 41... ...
How could such a broad array of approaches be linked in ways that would help to draw broader conclusions about the broad mechanisms underlying prevention? The committee decided that an approach that identified what the key logic models of prevention were at the outset would pro 41
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From page 42... ...
For example, hot spots policing and predictive policing developed primarily in response to the insights underlying the logic model of place-based prevention (described below) , whereas community-oriented policing and procedural justice policing rely primarily on a logic model emphasizing the key role played by communities in crime prevention.
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in maintaining order and public safety. Strategies that take a community-based approach include community-oriented policing, procedural justice policing, and broken windows policing.
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44 PROACTIVE POLICING TABLE 2-1 Four Approaches to Proactive Policing Problem- Person Place-Based Solving Focused Community-Based Approach Approach Approach Approach Logic Model Capitalize on Use a problem- Capitalize on Capitalize on for Crime the evidence oriented the strong the resources Prevention for the approach, concentration of communities concentration which seeks of crime to identify and of crime at to identify among a small control crime microgeographic problems as proportion of places patterns across the criminal crime events population and then identify the causes of those problems Draw upon solutions tailored to the problem causes, with attention to assessment Policing Hot spots Problem- Focused CommunityStrategies policing, oriented deterrence; oriented policing, predictive policing, third repeat offender procedural justice policing, CCTV party policing programs; policing, broken stop, question, windows policing and frisk Primary Prevent crime in Solve recurring Prevent and Enhance collective Objective microgeographic problems to deter specific efficacy and places prevent future crimes by community crime targeting collaboration with known police offenders Key Ways to Identification of Scan and Identification Develop Accomplish crime hot spots analyze crime of known approaches Objective and application problems, high-rate that engage the of focused identify offenders and community or strategies solutions and application of that change assess them strategies to the way police (SARA model) these specific interact with offenders citizens
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. Its logic model was based on the research findings that crime incidence was highly concentrated in crime hot spots.
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, suggested that reduction of crime opportunities at specific places would likely prevent crime without displacing it to other locations.1 Using this theoretical background, advocates of place-based policing argued that traditional objections to targeting microgeographic hot spots -- objections that assumed crime displacement -- would be unlikely to offset the crime prevention gains generated by focusing policing on hot spots. The underlying logic model of place-based policing -- that police can capitalize on the strong concentration of crime at microgeographic places -- has been confirmed in a large number of studies over the past few decades (see Andresen and Malleson, 2011; Braga, Papachristos, and Hureau, 2014; Brantingham and Brantingham, 1999; Crow and Bull, 1975; Curman, Andresen, and Brantingham, 2015; Pierce, Spaar, and Briggs, 1988; Roncek, 2000; Sherman, 1997; Sherman, Buerger, and Gartin, 1989; Weisburd and Amram, 2014; Weisburd et al., 2004; Weisburd and Green, 1995; Weisburd, Morris, and Groff, 2009; Weisburd, Maher, and Sherman, 1992; Weisburd, Groff, and Yang, 2012; Weisburd, 2015)
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From page 47... ...
conducted a survey on hots spots policing that was distributed to its general members.3 The results of the survey indicate that when police engage in hot spots policing, they implement aspects of general patrol/enforcement strategies, an offender-oriented strategy, problem-oriented and communityoriented strategies, or a general investigative strategy.4 Table 2-2 shows the use of each policing practice by the principal type of crime associated with 2 As noted earlier, actual policing practice often combines elements from two or more of the approaches. A hot spots policing practice that seeks to engage the community could easily become a hybrid of place-based and community-based approaches.
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39–58 56 39 47 56 58 Buy and Bust/Reverse Stings 11–87 18 11 17 36 87 Fixed Police Presence 26–46 43 26 34 43 46 Decoy Operations 11–46 29 11 12 16 46 NOTE: n = 176 agencies. SOURCE: Koper (2014, p.
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Predictive policing tends to focus on geospatial predic 5 The underlying logic model of hot spots policing does not limit police to implementing only these practices. For example, the police could engage in community policing (foot patrol being one tactic often associated with community policing, another being door-to-door getting-toknow-you police interventions)
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Police then use those patterns to anticipate, prevent, and respond more effectively to future crime. Predictive policing overlaps with hot spots policing but is generally distinguished by its reliance on sophisticated analytics that are used to predict likelihood of crime incidence within very specific parameters of space and time and for very specific types of crime.
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. We note, however, that a software program is not necessary to produce results akin to those produced by predictive policing software programs; with sufficient knowledge and under the right circumstances, a well-trained crime analyst could perform the activities of a dedicated software program.
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. The logic model of problem solving assumes that if the police focus on specific problems, they will be more successful at reducing crime and other community problems.
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Indeed, problem-oriented policing interventions draw upon a variety of tactics and practices, ranging from arrest of offenders and modification of the physical environment to engagement with community members. Historically, most police departments engaged in incident-driven crime prevention strategies.
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Thus, the failures of the standard model of policing are inherent in the limits on police powers, and crime prevention requires police engagement with third parties. Using civil ordinances and civil courts or the resources of private agencies, police departments engaged in third party policing recognize that much social control is exercised by institutions other than the police (e.g., public housing agencies, property owners, parents, health and building inspectors, and business owners)
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The focal point of third party policing can be people, places, or situations. Third party policing efforts are sometimes directed specifically at categories of people -- such as young people, gang members, or drug dealers -- and at other times at specific places, such as crime hot spots (Mazerolle and Ransley, 2006,
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During the preliminary site visit, a Beat Health team sought to establish a relationship with the site manager or with anyone who was thought to have a stake in improving conditions at the location. In addition to working closely with city agencies during inspections, the Beat Health teams often worked with police department neighborhood service coordinators, community groups, merchant associations, and other units of the Oakland Police Department.
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. Still other third party policing programs may seek to engage business improvement districts in crime prevention activities, such as coordinating private security services to complement public security (Cook, 2011; Cook and MacDonald, 2011)
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349–350) , "the emphasis is not only on increasing the risk of offending but also on decreasing opportunity structures for violence, deflecting offenders away from crime, increasing the collective efficacy of communities, and increasing the legitimacy of police actions." There have also been examples of focused deterrence applied to street drug markets and individual repeat offenders.
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This partnership also provided support services for these individuals through a community-based resource coordinator, while conveying the message that there now was an uncompromising community norm opposed to drug dealing. In a focused deterrence intervention in Chicago, parolees who had been involved in gun- and gang-related violent crimes and were returning to one of the highly dangerous neighborhoods selected for the intervention were required to attend "offender notification forums." The forums informed
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Stop, Question, and Frisk SQF has become one of the most controversial proactive policing strategies because police directly interact with citizens, using intrusive police powers. The legal authority to perform individual SQF is grounded in the landmark 1968 Supreme Court decision Terry v.
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For example, Weisburd, Telep, and Lawton (2014) found that SQF in New York City had been implemented as a type of hot spots policing tactic, where SQF stops were concentrated on specific high-crime streets.
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. proactive policing approaches, such as problem-solving or place-based policing, their key orientation is toward the community.
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. While the standard model of policing has relied primarily on the resources of the police and its traditional law enforcement powers, community policing suggests a reliance on a more community-based crime control that draws not only on the resources of the police but also on the resources of the public" (National Research Council, 2004, p.
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Skogan (1986, 1990) discussed community-oriented policing as playing an important role in reducing fear and thereby lowering the chances of citizen withdrawal and isolation -- two factors that, when left unchecked, may lead to further crime and disorder (see also the discussion below of broken windows policing)
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. Procedural Justice Policing A more recent organizational innovation with a focus on the community-based approach is procedural justice policing.
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less objectionable to the person on the receiving end. Also, unlike community-oriented policing, procedural justice policing does not seek to enlist the public in coproductive activities during these routine encounters but rather seeks to impress upon the citizen and the 13 Conceivably, this strategy could include many other occasions when police and public interact, such as neighborhood association meetings attended by the police.
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wider community that the police exercise their authority in legitimate ways.14 According to the logic model of this strategy, when citizens feel that policing is legitimate, they are more inclined not only to defer to police 14 Legitimacy, within the context of the procedural justice literature, is "a property of an authority or institution that leads people to feel that authority or institution is entitled to be deferred to and obeyed" (Sunshine and Tyler, 2003, p.
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The key to understanding the procedural justice strategy is that its elements focus on how people experience policing: whether they feel they have voice, whether they think the procedures are neutral, whether they feel respected, and whether they infer that the police are trustworthy. Trustworthiness is the key to accepting discretionary decisions, according to this logic model.
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From page 69... ...
But they also may occur in community meetings or with other proactive contacts with the police. Moreover, even in responses to citizen requests for police service, under procedural justice policing police officers should seek to apply procedural justice principles not only to initiators of police responses but also to bystanders and offenders.
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Broken Windows Policing Another strategy of the community-based approach uses a very different logic model for the problem of crime control. Broken windows policing sees the key to crime prevention as operating in the informal social controls within communities (Wilson and Kelling, 1982)
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Diminished informal or community social controls are thus a key component of the logic model underlying the broken windows concept of crime control. Wilson and Kelling (1982)
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A broken windows strategy may also be used in conjunction with other proactive policing strategies. For example, in Jersey City, New Jersey, officers used aggressive order maintenance as a tactic to reduce violent crime at hot spots (Braga et al., 1999)
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Using the broken windows logic model, Bratton instituted an aggressive citywide campaign to apprehend perpetrators of quality-of-life crimes, a campaign designed to "reclaim the public spaces of New York" (Bratton and Knobler, 1998, p.
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, CompStat, broken windows policing, early intervention systems, problem-oriented policing, procedural justice policing, hot spots policing, crime analysis, and community policing (Mastrofski and Fridell, n.d., p.
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Community-Oriented Policing 93.7 Problem-Oriented Policing 88.9 Hot Spots Policing 79.9 Directed Police Patrols/Focused Deterrence 92.1 Targeting Known Offenders 79.3 Predictive Policing 38.2 SOURCE: Police Executive Research Forum (2014, p.
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The survey is completed every 3 years. Table 2-6 displays the 2007 survey findings on hot spots and community policing, 20 In addition, to date, most departments implementing predictive policing must first pur chase predictive policing software.
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. and Table 2-7 presents the 2013 survey findings on community policing.21 One advantage of the LEMAS survey is that it allows one to look at the variability in policing strategies by department size -- and the overall story that emerges from these findings is that the claimed use of proactive strategies declines as the size of departments declines.
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. 25 As described above, for example, community-oriented policing was an especially attractive innovation for police departments because of the availability of federal grants, issued by the COPS Office, to support community-oriented policing programs (Reisig, 2010, p.
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CONCLUSION Each of the four approaches to proactive policing identified by the committee is derived from a different logic model, each focusing on a different method for preventing crime and disorder. A place-based approach seeks to
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From page 80... ...
In a person-focused approach, empirical data on the concentration of crimes among a small part of the criminal population form the key element of the logic model. And finally, with a community-based approach, the importance of the community in solving crime problems is the primary logic model of prevention.
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