Battery Electric Buses—State of the Practice (2018) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 14-39
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14 This literature review addresses the three overarching topics of BEB deployment. They are planning; service, maintenance, and operations; and costs and benefits associated with deployment.
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Literature review 15 The literature review will start with brief reviews of international activity to give context to the U.S. market and to trolley buses as a foundational electric drive technology for BEBs.
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16 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice with on-board batteries that are charged with the catenary while on wire and then used for offwire excursions (Trolleybus 2017)
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Literature review 17 Manufacturing costs in Table 4) have continued to show reductions since 2013, particularly with respect to battery costs (Ercan and Tatari 2015)
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18 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice not currently include considerations for zero emission technologies. A multidisciplinary team that includes bus manufacturers, transit agencies, industry consultants, and other public and private organizations was organized by APTA to update the Guidelines to address the procurement of BEBs.
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Literature Review 19 accommodate additional layover time to allow for connection to the on-route charger. Figure 5 shows how Foothill Transit's extended layover time allows the batteries to operate between 30% and 80% state of charge (SOC)
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20 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice the route changes. The first part of the loop is uphill, and the second part is downhill as the bus returns to the charging station.
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Literature review 21 of replenishment of the energy consumption. If the energy is adequately replenished, then the charging points are optimally distributed, assuming they comply with infrastructure standards and are placed such that other routes can potentially use them in the future (Kunith, 2014, page 44)
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22 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice charge head are located on either side of the building. The system is designed to fully charge a bus in under 10 minutes.
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Literature review 23 Figure 8. Foothill Transit's BEB route with the blue star showing where the charging station is located.
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24 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice Standards for overhead conductive and for wireless charging are currently under development. A committee has been established to develop the SAE J3105 standard for overhead conductive charging specifications for transit buses.
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Literature review 25 More on Demand Charges [Excerpt from Air Resources Board, Electricity Costs for Battery Electric Bus Operation, n.d.] Making an analogy to plumbing, it is comparable to how many gallons of water a person draws at any given moment.
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Figure 9. A comparison of fuel and electricity costs and the impacts of demand charges.
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Literature review 27 Figure 10. A comparison of the stability of fuel and electricity costs.
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Rate Structure A B C D E F Allowable Max Demand Range below 20 kW 20 kW-200 kW 200 kW-500 kW 200 kW-500 kW above 500 kW 20 kW-500 kW Fixed Charges Customer Charge [$/Meter/Month] $25.92 $198.79 $441.93 $441.93 $319.93 $198.79 Three Phase Service [$/Month]
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Literature review 29 Scalability While there are approximately 600 BEBs on order or in service, most transit agencies deploying BEBs have a BEB fleet size of less than 10 buses, as shown in Figure 11. There are only four transit agencies currently operating more than 10 BEBs in service and the largest fleet is 21 buses.
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30 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice staff need to know how to effectively and efficiently operate and maintain the vehicles. An example of this is highlighted in the NREL report.
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Literature review 31 2,333 miles, which is consistent with the requirements of the route on which they operated (Line 291)
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32 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice manufacturer ceased production. Eventually they were unable to find replacement parts and determined to replace the chargers all together (Eudy et al., 2016, page 11)
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Literature review 33 Other transit agencies in California are using state funds to support their purchase of BEBs. Antelope Valley Transit Authority (AVTA)
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34 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice exterior noise levels for each bus model when accelerated from standstill at full throttle. The CNG bus produced the highest noise levels and the electric bus produced the lowest noise levels consistently on both sides of the vehicle.
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Literature review 35 BEB and diesel bus had the same measured sound level for the driver's seat location, but for all other measures BEBs were noticeably more quiet than CNG, diesel, and hybrid models. Environmental and Health Benefits Heavy-duty buses and trucks are major contributors of pollutants.
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36 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice technology inherently provides an emissions reduction strategy that does not rely on additional vehicle systems. Improvements to power generation are helping reduce the life cycle emissions associated with BEBs.
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Literature review 37 The capital costs for BEBs are currently higher than that of conventional technology, although the costs have dropped considerably over the last few years as orders for the buses have increased. The increase in orders allows the manufacturers to take advantage of economies of scale to reduce the productions costs (Eudy et al., 2016, page 18)
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38 Battery electric Buses -- State of the practice of scale. Transit agencies have several options to address how to offset remaining incremental costs.
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Literature review 39 BEBs emit no emissions at the tailpipe. When considering electricity production in the total emissions profile, life cycle emissions for BEBs have 75% less global warming emissions and significantly lower NOx emissions than CNG and diesel buses when considering a California energy production mix.
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