Open Science by Design Realizing a Vision for 21st Century Research (2018) / Chapter Skim
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2 Broadening Access to the Results of Scientific Research
2 Broadening Access to the Results of Scientific Research
Pages 23-58
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From page 23... ...
Openness also enables researchers to address entirely new questions and work across na tional and disciplinary boundaries. Open science supports expanded access to the research process itself through citizen science activities.
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Distinct, but interrelated, motivations also include: the taxpayer's right to the results of publicly funded research; the ability of any member of society to scrutinize, evaluate, challenge and reproduce scientific claims; and the opportunity for anyone, including private citizens, to build directly on the scientific investigations of others. The motivations, benefits, and challenges of open science will be explored in more detail below.
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FIGURE 2-1 The FOSTER Taxonomy of Open Science. SOURCE: FOSTER (Facilitate Open Science Training for European Research)
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In an attempt to delineate the variation in interpretation of openness by journal publishers, the Public Library of Science (PLOS) , Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC)
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TABLE 2-1 HowOpenIsIt?
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. The retention of copyright by authors for the purpose of making publications openly available has been one of the most contentious issues surrounding open publication, since it goes against journal publishing practices that require authors to assign the copyright to their work to the journals through copyright transfer agreements as a condition for publication.
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BOX 2-2 The FAIR Guiding Principles for Scientific Data Management and Stewardship To Be Findable: F1. (meta)
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The rationale for opening the methods and outcomes of research is strong, multifold, and increasingly accepted by scientific, engineering, and biomedical investigators. Published science has traditionally operated as a form of open or partially open commons or common-pool resource, subject to legal frameworks such as intellectual property rights and with a few exceptions such as those for proprietary research and research related to national security (Hess and Ostrom, 2003)
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From page 31... ...
Today's advances in biomedical research, and many other fields such as archaeology, would not be imaginable without genomic mapping and analysis. While there are undeniably significant costs associated with implementing policies and practices that support open science, realizing the benefits discussed in this section translates into a higher return on the investment of financial and human resources in research activity.
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First, open science can accelerate progress by making research more efficient. When scientific results are made openly available in digital form, they enable faster, deeper, and broader dissemination of the results to other researchers.
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Utilizing advanced machine learning tools in analyzing datasets or literature, for example, will facilitate new insights and discoveries. Further, digital platforms for extending and repurposing scientific results and connecting them across multiple communities, as well as sophisticated search engines that can follow scientific arguments from one result to another, will need to be developed and made available.
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Researchers have also examined the impact of online access and open publication of scholarship on the number of citations. Online access to articles via subscription reduces search costs and likely increases citations, but the citation impact may be conflated with the quality of the journal.
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Both JSTOR and Science Direct provide online access but are subscription-based, not open. McCabe and Snyder (2014)
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According to Science International, "if this social revolution in science is to be achieved, it is not only a matter of making data that underpin a scientific claim intelligently open, but also of having a default position of openness for publicly funded data in general" (Science International, 2015)
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. Although the benefits of open science are increasingly being realized and recognized, there are significant barriers to a research enterprise and environment where access to research products is routinely expected.
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Nonprofit publishers also occupy an important place in the scholarly communications ecosystem. The most prominent of these are scientific society publishers, although university presses and other nonprofit organizations, such as the Public Library of Science (PLOS, described in more detail in Chapter 3)
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. By contrast, in the social and behavioral sciences, society publishers play a smaller role in overall scholarly communication than in disciplines such as physics and chemistry (Larivière et al., 2015)
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Publishers pursuing open ac cess business models are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. • Commercial publishers: Typically, publishers bundle journal subscrip tions as a way of cross-subsidizing lesser journals by including high pro file journals in the bundle.
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They found significant price discrimination by commercial publishers by the research-intensiveness of the university, and a lesser amount of price discrimination by nonprofit publishers. The "big deal" pricing strategies of journal publishers have played a major role in shaping the market for research journals.
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Society publishers have expressed a range of perspectives in their public statements and policy positions as well. They are generally supportive of open publication in principle, but are skeptical about the imposition of funder mandates that require gold open access at the time of publication, or green open access with embargo periods of less than one year (Collins et al., 2013)
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Academic Culture and Misaligned Incentives One important set of barriers to open science springs from the fact that many of the benefits redound to research communities and the broader research enterprise itself, yet researchers are recognized and rewarded largely based on their individual production and accomplishments. The culture of open science is seen as being about advancing the public interest -- when research products are broadly available and discoverable, they benefit more people and drive more innovation than when they are not.
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New research workflows in which reporting results and sharing research products takes place within a process where community review helps to uncover error will improve the reliability of results, as described above. Preregistration of studies can help to uncover mistakes in analytical approaches before data are collected.
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The most salient issue is the importance of bibliometric indicators such as the Journal Impact Factor (JIF) in evaluating research and researchers (Declaration of Open Research Assessment, DORA, 2013; Casadevall and Fang, 2015)
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. Such hypercompetition may directly discourage open practices such as sharing data and other research products if researchers are primarily concerned with maintaining an advantage.
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Efforts are also ongoing to take advantage of the capabilities of information technologies and the explosion of online interactions to develop new measures of research impact that would address some of the negative aspects of the JIF and enable a broader consideration of the value of articles and other research products. Taken together, these new measures have been labeled alternative metrics or altmetrics.
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As of 2017, there are several hundred thousand trials from around the world registered in ClinicalTrials.gov and an increasing number of these include detailed results data. The legislative requirements for making clinical trials data available were critical both for the original development of ClinicalTrials.gov as well as for its continued significant expansion and growth.
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Controlled Clinical Trials 9:1-5. Finally, broader efforts are underway to rethink research evaluation practices and develop new approaches that place less emphasis on JIF and other bibliometric indicators and more emphasis on other contributions of researchers, including adherence to open practices.
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An unintended and potentially harmful consequence of publicly sharing research data, however, is the possible effect on privacy. Researchers have long recognized the privacy implications of publicly sharing research data, especially when such data involve human subjects, such as patients in a clinical trial.
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Recent advances in data privacy aim to address this issue by developing techniques that are agnostic to adversarial background knowledge. A notable example is the concept of differential privacy (Dwork, 2008)
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, the Yale University Open Data Access (YODA) project for clinical trials (The YODA Project, 2018)
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If articles, data, code, and other research products constitute the content that is to be available under FAIR principles, open science infrastructure consists of the tools and metadata through which research products are created, shared, and assessed, including "data about the research process itself, such as reference lists and funding information" (Peters, 2017)
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In the case of the DO, a digital object is a virtual data object that references a data object at a lower level of abstraction. Just as an Internet message has a header that contains the necessary metadata to transmit the message, a DO digital object has a "landing page" containing the necessary metadata to understand and manipulate the digital object.
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reviewed various possible funding strategies for long-term data management, noting that funders are increasingly advocating that institutions accept responsibility for data management as a library preservation function. They found that institutions are mainly supporting data management services through their library budgets, but that some are exploring more diversified sources of funding.
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Ensuring that resources for management and long-term stewardship of data and other research products are available -- including highly trained data scientists, tools, and data standards -- will require significant long-term effort on the part of stakeholders working across disciplines, sectors, and national boundaries. As will be discussed below, researchers in several fields have made significant progress and have created numerous examples and models that hold the potential for wider deployment.
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When a company performs research that produces an invention for which intellectual property protection should be secured and where results are publishable, it can choose to file a patent application before the relevant research article is published. If open science requirements such as data sharing would expose information about the research that the company does not wish to publicize, it can choose not to publish an article and protect the invention through patenting or trade secrecy.
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However, several important issues that lie largely outside the scope of the study will remain. One example is the implementation of open science practices in research relevant to policymaking and regulation in areas such as environmental health.
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