Frontiers of Materials Research A Decadal Survey (2019) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
2 Progress and Achievements in Materials Research over the Past Decade
2 Progress and Achievements in Materials Research over the Past Decade
Pages 26-103
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 26... ...
. The ultimate goal of the MGI was "to discover, manufacture, and deploy advanced materials twice as fast, at a fraction of the cost."1 The key to the initiative was the Materials Innovation Infrastructure, which realized that progress would be accelerated by working at the intersection of computational materials science and engineering, materials informatics, and synthesis and processing, as well as material characterization and property assessment.
|
From page 27... ...
The latter approach was seen as one in which the time from discovery to deployment of a new material would be reduced significantly from the typical 20 years for many industries. 2 National Research Council, 2008, Integrated Computational Materials Engineering: A Transforma tional Discipline for Improved Competitiveness and National Security, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., https://doi.org/10.17226/12199.
|
From page 28... ...
The impact is a significant acceleration of the product development cycle time. For example, Brunswick Cor poration, and particularly its Mercury Marine division, used this approach for new aluminum and stainless-steel alloy development as well as castings to improve the performance of existing materials and products, and ultimately, to reduce production cost.
|
From page 29... ...
For example, bulk structural alloys designed with self organized nanoscale dispersoids with strengths exceeding 1.5 to 2 GPa while still retaining acceptable ductility and fracture toughness have been developed. This is a remarkable advance compared to historical practical strength limits of <1 GPa for 20th century structural materials, one that can enable significant lightweighting and cost reduction in key structural components for transportation and energy ap plications.
|
From page 30... ...
Olson, 2015, Integrated computational materials design for high-performance alloys, MRS Bulletin 40:1035-1044, doi:10.1557/mrs.2015.273, reproduced with permission.
|
From page 31... ...
Bulk metallic glasses offer near net shape6 formability, potential improvements in corrosion resistance, and useful strength and fracture toughness. The key scientific advance enabling the fabrica tion of commercial bulk metallic glasses is associated with improved understand ing of the atomic compositions that suppress crystallization during cooling (while also providing attractive mechanical properties)
|
From page 32... ...
Controlling the size of the grain is a traditional approach to enhancing the properties of metallic alloys, with impressive improvements in room-temperature properties achieved for nanocrystalline grain sizes. Since most nanocrystalline grains are susceptible to dramatic coarsening during prolonged operation at room temperature or higher, research during the past decade has been instrumental in identifying the roles of composition and structure, such as grain boundary junc tions, on modifying grain growth and accompanying mechanical properties.
|
From page 33... ...
Environmental concerns over the use of toxic corrosion inhibitors, such as hexavalent chromium and cadmium, have necessitated the development of alternative coating materials and processes to prevent corrosion. Existing low-cost aqueous-based deposition processes such as immersion coatings and electrodeposition have led to new processes, such as zirconium-based conver sion coatings and zinc-based alloys, to replace hexavalent chromium and cadmium, respectively.
|
From page 34... ...
These materials have been used as diesel filters, thermal barrier coatings, armor, turbine engine components, and refractories. Significant advances in the past decade have provided insights into the structure of these materials, improvements in processing, and ability to tailor the chemistries to achieve new properties.
|
From page 35... ...
Takeuchi, and N Kawahara, 2009, Enhance ment of piezoelectric response in scandium aluminum nitride alloy thin films prepared by dual reac tive cosputtering, Advanced Materials 21(5)
|
From page 36... ...
2.2.3 Composites and Hybrids Composite and hybrid materials have seen increased applications over the past decade, building on the foundation that investments in polymer-matrix compos ite have achieved in broader understanding of these highly engineered materials. Monolithic materials can be easily shaped into engineering components via casting, forging, injection molding, machining, and a myriad of manufacturing processes, and historically the use of monolithic materials has far outpaced the use of hybrid materials in man-made engineering systems.
|
From page 37... ...
For example, during the past decade, the increase of carbon-fiber composites for structural components in aircraft increased from less than 25 percent in 2010 to around 50 percent at the time this report was prepared. The development and impact of ceramic matrix composites for applica tion in aircraft engines and gas turbines is highlighted in Box 2.3.
|
From page 38... ...
Last, the composite was produced by a melt-infiltration process, in which a coated fiber array is impregnated with a slurry of SiC and carbon and melt-infiltrated with silicon to produce a dense SiC matrix reinforced with SiC fibers. The development of a CMC suitable for aviation took more than 25 years of development, which highlights the challenge of translating materials development at the laboratory scale to product development.
|
From page 39... ...
Corman and K.L. Luthra, 2017, "Development History of GE's Prepreg Melt Infiltrated Ceramic Matrix Composites Material and Applications," in Comprehensive Composite Materials II, Elsevier, New York, with permission from Elsevier.
|
From page 40... ...
The major increase in material temperature afforded by CMCs compared to Ni-based superal loys was achievable, through not only material selection, but also fundamentally new design and analysis approaches, as well as by innovative processing methods. Figure 2.4 shows the increase in the operating temperature with the development of Ni-based superalloys, and the increase in operating temperature achieved through the introduction of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs)
|
From page 41... ...
Padture, 2016, Advanced structural ceramics in aerospace propulsion, Nature Materials 15:804-809, © 2016. Advances in coating technologies have also engendered significant advances and increased reliability and use of multilayered wear, thermal, and environmental protection systems.
|
From page 42... ...
Owing to the novelty of the approach, extensive materials testing, manufacturing process development, structural analysis, thermal analysis, and testing were required to bring about a successful TPS in a little over 4 years. FIGURE 2.4 .1 Artist's concept of the Parker Solar Probe Plus with hybrid thermal protection system.
|
From page 43... ...
2.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND OTHER ELECTRONIC MATERIALS Semiconductors are the workhorse materials for electronic and photonic device applications -- making up integrated circuits, circuit boards, and light emitters, and incorporated into packaging materials, displays, and any number of controlling and monitoring devices.18 This section discusses some of the principal develop ments in semiconductors and other electronic materials that have allowed con tinued, significant advances in modern electronics and photonics. Like many of the mate ials discussed in other sections of this chapter, the discovery paths followed r in electronic materials have, in many cases, been influenced or even been directed by the industrial environment in which these materials discoveries participate.
|
From page 44... ...
The often predicted, long-delayed, and gradual "end of Moore's law" is setting the stage for exciting new developments in information technology as the focus of research and development shifts from miniaturization of long-established devices to the coordinated introduction of new devices, new integration technologies, and new architectures for computing.2 The impetus for this shift in research investment goes back to the period 2003-2005, when microprocessor clock frequencies, constrained by considerations of heat removal and power density, suddenly plateaued.3 Aware that these constraints could not be fully addressed by continued incremental advancement of established technologies, representatives of several microelectronics manufacturers began to discuss a research program with longer-term goals. As a result, the Nanoelectronics Research Initiative (NRI)
|
From page 45... ...
2.3.2 Continued Miniaturization of Silicon-Based Field-Effect Devices Over the past decade, materials and process innovation made significant con tributions to efforts to further miniaturize silicon-based field-effect devices. Se lected materials research highlights include the following: • New low-k dielectric films based on chemical vapor deposition (CVD, or similar)
|
From page 46... ...
Smith, Proceedings of SPIE, 5754, SPIE, Bellingham, Wash., doi: 10.1117/12.600025. 20 CVD is chemical vapor deposition and is all types of depositions relying on chemical reactions.
|
From page 47... ...
21 T Haga, 2018, The early days of R&D on EUV lithography and future expectations, Journal of Photopolymer Science and Technology 31:193.
|
From page 48... ...
48 F r o n t i e r s o f M at e r i a l s R e s e a r c h It is still too soon to predict when the NCFET will be commercialized and how important it will become for information technology, but a recent demonstration of a superior power-performance trade-off relative to closely comparable conventional FET circuits is very encouraging.22 The NCFET is just one example of an emerging class of transistor-like evices d that switch by physical principles that are fundamentally different from the op erating principle of the conventional FET, and can thus transcend some of the FET's fundamental limits.23 The tunneling FET is another exemplar device that has improved rapidly in recent years, enabled by materials advances such as the controlled growth of compositionally graded semiconductor nanowires. Other compelling low-voltage, low-power device concepts are less developed.
|
From page 49... ...
Sun, 2018, Nonlinear optics with 2D layered materials, Advanced Materials 30:1705963. 26 3D NAND is driven by interconnect layers, which is a subset of the technological requirements for 3D logic.
|
From page 50... ...
The tubular SiNx structures, along with accompanying prepatterned metal layers, have been used to produce a novel on-chip tube inductor design platform to pro duce inductors for application in radio frequency integrated circuits. Control of the size of two-layer metal InGaAs scrolls, in which the metal is used as the stressor, has been achieved through lithographic patterning, as seen in Figure 2.6.
|
From page 51... ...
P r o g r e s s a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s i n M at e r ia l s R e s e a r c h 51 FIGURE 2.6 Top: Simulation of a coaxial structure. Bottom: Coaxial structure rolled up by local stress.
|
From page 52... ...
2.3.5 Organic Semiconductors Conjugated semiconducting polymer/organic materials offer in some cases opportunities for a low-cost, additive, environmentally benign, printable elec tronics manufacturing ecosystem built on materials designed to be lightweight, flexible, and solution processable over large areas. These materials offer oppor tunities for functional electronic devices for applications including organic field effect transistors, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
|
From page 53... ...
This is a rapidly evolving area of materials research.
|
From page 54... ...
was articulated in 1957. Applications for superconductors arise in their unique transport and quantum-mechanical properties: production of large magnetic fields (e.g., high-field research, magnetic resonance imaging, supercolliders)
|
From page 55... ...
SOURCE: external magnetic field decays inside "Structural Investigation in turn, how far into the supercon Figure 2.4 from Pia Jensen Ray, 2015, a superconductor (or, of La(2-x)
|
From page 56... ...
In strongly correlated metallic systems, which are often transition metal oxides, understanding the nature of unusual ordered states, such as spin-density waves, charge-density waves, nematic order, and superconductivity, has remained a major focus of investigation, as have associated phenomena, properties, and pathways between phases, such as metal-insulator transitions.33 A major focus over the past decade has been on quantum spin liquids.34 These can have an impact on data storage and memories in addition to further ing the understanding of high-temperature superconductivity. In these materials, fluctuating spins do not order down to the lowest temperature but rather form a highly entangled state.
|
From page 57... ...
Last, researchers have discovered, identified, and gained understanding and control of newer forms of quantum mat ter, including topological insulators, and van der Waals semiconductors where the roles of strong electron correlations, broken symmetries, topology, and dimen sionality are being explored. Researchers have learned to control and manipulate 35 J
|
From page 58... ...
2.4.2 Magnetic Materials Magnetic materials principally are used in two major types of applications -- electromagnetic devices and magnetic information storage and logic. In elec tromechanical applications, motors, and actuators, the quest for new materials focuses on hard magnets -- that is, materials that develop strong external magnetic fields that, in turn, produce strong forces.
|
From page 59... ...
In the past decade, the bilayer system consisting of a ferromagnet and a metal with strong spin-orbit interactions, most notably Pt/YIG, has become the paradigm for new discoveries and for new explanations developed for older discoveries, such as the anomalous Hall, spin-Hall, inverse spin-Hall, and spin-Nernst effects.39 These effects have led to a completely new way of measuring local magnetizations and spin currents: a new tool that will lead to future important discoveries in magnetic materials and widen the possibility of designing new spin-electronic devices, such as logic ele ments, amplifiers, and oscillators. Topological insulator materials, which are also based on strong spin-orbit interactions, have been coupled in this way to ferro magnetic solids, typically Bi2Se3/YIG.
|
From page 60... ...
that outperform conventionally processed magnets in some applications. This allows for devices like generators and electric motors to be made with reduced demand for critical materials such as neodymium and dysprosium.
|
From page 61... ...
Antisymmetric exchange interactions -- for example, the Dzyaloshinskii Moriya interaction -- favor orthogonal spin alignment, which leads to a number of new skew effects such as a possible magnon Hall effect. This introduces chirality in the magnetization -- for example, in skyrmions.
|
From page 62... ...
integration of magnetic effects on single-chip devices will be further enhanced by the development of multiferroic materials, which combine magnetic effects with electrical ones. Multiferroic materials involve simultaneously two or more "ferroic" orders -- for example, ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity.
|
From page 63... ...
2.4.3 Two-Dimensional Quantum Materials Graphene The modern ascension of 2D materials began with the isolation and electrical measurement of single-atomic-layer graphite, or graphene, by Geim and Novoselov in 2004, which garnered a Nobel Prize in 2010.40 Although the band-structure of graphene had been calculated in 1947, and individual flakes had been imaged with electron microscopy, Geim and Novoselov demonstrated that one-atom-thick membranes could be simply created and easily fabricated into electronic devices. While the first graphene devices were created by mechanical exfoliation of graphite using adhesive tape, large-area growth can now be achieved via chemical vapor deposition, liquid-phase exfoliation, and synthesis on SiC.41 Graphene is a zero gap semiconductor having properties such as high electron mobility (>15,000 cm2V−1s−1)
|
From page 64... ...
As with graphene, monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides exhibit quantum confinement leading to enhance ments in the electronic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties that are sig nificantly different from those of the bulk material -- for example, the semimetallic to semiconducting transition observed in ultrathin TiS2, the metallic-to-insulating
|
From page 65... ...
Yan and C Felser, 2017, Topological materials: A Weyl semimetals, Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics 8:1-19; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
|
From page 66... ...
Another very promising property of semiconducting monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides is the re markably strong light-exciton interactions and greatly enhanced electron-electron interactions. Exciton binding energies in these materials can be hundreds of mil lielectron volts, two orders of magnitude larger than what is seen in typical bulk semiconductors.
|
From page 67... ...
Devices based on atomically thin monolayers are the extreme scenario for the future lightweight, low-power consumption, and wearable electronics. Moreover, the true potential of these layered materials may emerge from the ability to stack them, layer by layer in any desired sequence, to create novel 3D architectures with entirely new functions.
|
From page 68... ...
In 2016, the efforts resulted in the Nobel Prize in physics being awarded "for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter."43 Beyond the basic recognition of topological properties, there has been significant progress in fabri cating topological materials that clearly express the topological properties, which are needed for fundamental research or to enable device applications. Most materials, such as the Bi-based ones, were grown as bulk crystals.
|
From page 69... ...
. Magnetically doped TIs exhibited a quantum anomalous Hall effect, where ferromagnetism and spin-orbit coupling combine to create a quantum Hall effect at zero external magnetic field.
|
From page 70... ...
This and related systems enable novel device designs for a variety of optical applications. Optical systems involving a double-gyroid lattice in a magnetic field44 exhibit Weyl points and line nodes, and coupled infrared optical resonator waveguides with degenerate oppositely moving modes mimic the quantum spin Hall effect of topological insulators with edge states that have effective topological protection.
|
From page 71... ...
They are chal lenging to construct because one must have a way of specifying and controlling the quantum operations while avoiding decoherence arising from unintended interac tions with the environment. A summary of the goals and comparative achievements of quantum computing is summarized in the report "Technical Roadmap for Fault Tolerant Quantum Computing,"46 Tremendous progress toward the development of quantum computers has been made in the past decade, and progress in materials has been critical to these achievements.
|
From page 72... ...
To protect transmons from the environment, an architecture called circuit quantum electrodynamics (cQED) is employed whereby the qubit is coupled to a microwave resonator, and that readout resonator is coupled to the external envi ronment.
|
From page 73... ...
Recent work has dem onstrated that other materials systems could be suitable for hosting quantum dot qubits. For example, an artificial double quantum dot molecule in a gated MoS2 van der Waals heterostructure has promising controllability, properties, as well as manufacturable reproducibility.
|
From page 74... ...
No such level of control is even remotely possible yet in chemically synthesized copolymers. Biological synthesis, however, can be commandeered to produce unnatural amino acid polymers, which can be further diversified by post-translational, or even post-polymerization, chemical
|
From page 75... ...
Self-assembly has come to be viewed as a chemical-reaction-like process, moving with some kinetics from reactants to products. Nucleic acid self-assembly, which brings programmability and addressability not possible with hydrophobic or van der Waals forces, is evolv ing from initial concepts to practical possibilities in information and biomedical technologies.
|
From page 76... ...
Perhaps the most striking accomplishment in the area of glassy polymers has been the development of vitrimers, a remarkable new class of plastics that exhibit properties similar to silica glasses. Permanently cross-linked materials have out standing mechanical properties and solvent resistance, but they cannot be pro cessed and reshaped once synthesized.
|
From page 77... ...
Although the material is, at all times, a 3D, covalently cross-linked network, heating allows malleability through the bond exchange process illustrated. Therefore, unlike cross-linked networks without bond exchange, vitrimers can be processed similarly to non-cross-linked glassy polymers, can be welded, can enable self-healing, and can be recycled.
|
From page 78... ...
Catalysts for new electroactive conjugated polymers, with applications from solar energy to nonlinear optics, have been in troduced. New catalysts have also been central to a growing body of work aimed at green polymer science.
|
From page 79... ...
Braun, 2009, Self-healing polymer coatings, Advanced Materials 21:645-649, © 2009 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
|
From page 80... ...
As in other areas of materials science and engineering, the advances in computational power and computational methods has had a significant impact on polymer science. The introduction of deep learning48 methods to polymer science is in its infancy but is expected to have a significant impact in the coming decade.
|
From page 81... ...
Hybrid-bonding polymers are an important emerging class of macromolecu lar soft materials in which the bonding among monomeric units is covalent or noncovalent in different nanoscale domains of their structure. These materials are therefore composed of covalent and supramolecular polymers and can be synthe sized through various pathways, which includes the methodology in which covalent and supramolecular polymerizations occur simultaneously.
|
From page 82... ...
Examples of dynamic properties include fast self-healing of defects, rapid response to external stimuli, enhanced rates of biodegradation, and new opportunities in recycling, toughening mechanisms, and electrical actuation. 2.5.2 Biomolecular and Bio-Inspired Materials Research on soft matter outside conventional covalent polymers over the past decade has been dominated by the area of self-assembling materials, most com monly supramolecular polymers, organogels, DNA and peptide nanotechnology, supramolecular nanostructures, 2D materials, as well as metal-organic and covalent organic frameworks.
|
From page 83... ...
Advances in metallic, ceramic, and soft biomaterials over the past decade have significantly advanced efforts to address these needs. Metallic Biomaterials In the field of metallic biomaterials, there have been a number of active research areas that focus on improving implants.
|
From page 84... ...
Advances of the past decade have also shown that implantable electronic devices could in principle be developed using biodegradable metals. The area could have impact in other technologies outside biomaterials -- for example, in strategies to create degradable and more easily recyclable electronic devices.
|
From page 85... ...
In supramolecular polymers, bonding among monomeric units involves weak noncovalent interac tions, thus creating many exciting new directions in soft materials. For example, the binding energies among monomers become tunable over a broad range, and the end result is a broad platform of soft materials in which the bond lifetimes can vary significantly.
|
From page 86... ...
These were the first examples of supramolecular biomaterials exhibiting high levels of bioactivity in cell signaling for regenerative medicine, biocompatibility, and rapid biodegradation in vivo.
|
From page 87... ...
Soft biomaterials are also beginning to be impacted by the development of AM techniques in order to control macroscopic form and microscopic architecture. Printing also brings the possibility of creating constructs that are hybrids of soft biomaterials and cells, allowing the localization of cells in specific compartments of a 3D structure.51 It is worth mentioning that there has been a recent trend to the formation of Current Good Laboratory Practice (cGLP)
|
From page 88... ...
Whereas in the past, colloids were mostly restricted to micron-scale spherical particles suspended in an isotropic fluid and interacting through a few elementary forces -- steric repulsion, electrostatic, attractive van der Waals, and depletion -- it is now routine to create particles of essentially any shape (e.g., the letters of the al phabet) with specific directional, reversible, and irreversible interactions dispersed in anisotropic liquid crystals in addition to isotropic fluids.
|
From page 89... ...
Yodh. 2015, Chi ral structures and defects of lyotropic chromonic liquid crystals induced by saddle-splay elasticity, Physical Review E 91(5)
|
From page 90... ...
Because of the strong coupling to the direc tor, their magnetic excitations are overdamped and do not exhibit the traditional dispersion with frequency proportional to wave-number squared. In the past decade, there have been advances in the use of liquid crystals for chemical and gas sensors.
|
From page 91... ...
Tweig, and N.L. Abbott, 2018, Liquid crystals with interfacial ordering that enhances responsiveness to chemical targets, Advanced Materials 30(27)
|
From page 92... ...
but not the other and a shear-jammed phase that resists stresses along both directions but with greater strength along one direction than the other.67 Work such as this on granular materials and jamming has had a significant impact on understanding of the mechanical and flow properties of dense suspensions. Packing of Hard Objects The structure of liquids, solids, and glasses is intimately related to the volume fraction of ordered and disordered (random)
|
From page 93... ...
Properties of materials often result from the different forms of order, or broken symmetry, that they exhibit. Examples are the rigidity of crystals arising from their periodic structure and the optical properties of liquid crystals arising from FIGURE 2.18 Left: Configuration of tetrahedra in the 12-fold quasicrystal.
|
From page 94... ...
Lubensky, 1995, Principles of Condensed Matter Physics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
|
From page 95... ...
An extended version of the periodic structure shown in Figure 2.19 (c) can lift up to 100 times its own weight without buckling.
|
From page 96... ...
White, 2015, Voxelated liquid crystal elastomers, Science 347(6225) :982-984; reprinted with permission from AAAS.
|
From page 97... ...
They have predicted various properties of active matter such as spontaneous flow, rheological response, and the formation and annihilation of topological de fects. More microscopic models with specific interactions between self-propelled particles or that include molecular motors like myosin as the source of active mo tion have also proven to be very useful especially for numerical simulation (see Figure 2.20)
|
From page 98... ...
In much the same way that arches, columns, beams, and buttresses revolutionized the construction of buildings, towers, and bridges in past centuries, the materials community is now exploiting material architecture to ex pand the material design space in multiple dimensions, independently manipulate material properties that are currently coupled, and develop materials with vastly superior properties than can be achieved with solid objects. Stochastic metallic foams have given way to metamaterials and microlattices with ever finer features and ever broader material classes and functionalities.79 Breakthrough improve ments in specific strength and stiffness, energy absorptivity, negative Poisson ratio, zero thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, as well as electromagnetic sensing, filtering, cloaking, and communications have all been reported for laboratory quan tities of materials in the past decade.
|
From page 99... ...
Carter, 2016, Architected cellular materials, Annual Review of Materials Research 46:187-210; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (approximately 3 percent)
|
From page 100... ...
The ideal catalyst would not need regeneration or replacement for a period of several years. The past decade has seen a great deal of progress in terms of new materials, which could catalyze a range of important chemical reactions, but also the role of surface conditions such as in plasma-assisted hot electron catalysis.80 One class of such materials relies on shape-controlled wet synthesis of late transition metal nanoparticles.
|
From page 101... ...
Advances in characterization capabilities, not only in the spatial, temporal, and energy resolution but also in the ability to conduct experiments in situ under operando conditions, have accelerated understanding of the dynamic structural and compositional changes that occur during the catalytic cycle.82 Multimode ex perimental tools now allow the structural and compositional modifications to be probed in a single experiment in real time and operando conditions. Tomographic methods now provide three-dimensional insight of porous substrates and the dis persion of the nanoparticles, and of oxides on and in substrates to identify active sites, and information on the elemental distribution.
|
From page 102... ...
Driven by the need to increase catalyst surface area, decrease the use of pre cious metals, and improve the stability of nanoparticles, considerable progress has been made in confining nanoparticles within open structured systems, such as metal organic frameworks, novel zeolites, zeolitic imidazolate frameworks, porous organic polymers, materials, carbon nanotubes, and so on. A consequence of intro ducing a confinement cage is that it creates a local environment that differs from that encountered in the bulk form.
|
From page 103... ...
2.8 CONCLUSION The past decade has seen significant advances across all areas of materials science and engineering, much of this enabled by the teaming of experimentalists with computational materials scientists and the emerging importance of material informatics. Materials synthesis and processing to produce new materials as well as high-quality materials for fundamental investigations remains an ongoing chal lenge.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.