The Promise of Adolescence Realizing Opportunity for All Youth (2019) / Chapter Skim
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6 Education
6 Education
Pages 159-208
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From page 159... ...
. As secondary schools were established across the country during the post-Civil War period, they were often designed to educate youth for routinized jobs in factories in the new industrial age and, implicitly, to socialize conformity in increasingly diverse and complex urban centers.
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From page 160... ...
But most secondary schools remain large, highly structured bureaucracies where youth follow rules, with few opportunities to create, solve problems, and practice decision making, despite the fact that these skills are becoming increasingly important for economic success and these opportunities are the very things youth need to fully develop (Eccles et al., 1993)
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From page 161... ...
The secondary school system of the future must do a much better job of meeting teens where they are and personalizing instruction, much as the field of health care, for instance, is increasingly shifting toward "personalized medicine." The growing recognition of the importance of skills other than reading, writing, and arithmetic for both personal fulfillment and success in modern-day life will require schools to broaden their mission. The growing diversity of U.S.
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From page 162... ...
SOCIETAL CHANGES While the current system of secondary education was largely designed to meet 19th century educational needs, rapid changes in American life in the 20th and 21st centuries have affected both the contexts in which young people grow up and the skills and competencies they need to garner from the education system in order to become productive adult members of society. This section discusses these societal changes -- changes in the labor market returns to education, in the growing importance of nonacademic skills, and in out-of-school learning environments -- and their relevance for the education sector.
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From page 163... ...
Put differently, the types of skills that the economy increasingly requires are not limited to those skills associated with college attendance; yet high school graduates are not generally wellequipped to enter the labor market. A randomized controlled trial of Career Academies by Kemple (2008)
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From page 164... ...
, understanding and forecasting which jobs are likely to be the first to be either fully or partially automated is essential if the goal is to develop "specific" human capital. Among other things, it will be important to forecast how the increasing focus on "human augmented artificial intelligence" might change the labor market returns to different skills over time, and to identify the occupations in which humans will have comparative advantage so that we can train youth for those roles.
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From page 165... ...
These and other outof-school learning contexts remind us that the education sector continues to be broader than just schools. While the most obvious element of the education sector is public K–12 and postsecondary schools, the sector also includes private schools, ancillary services, and agencies that provide tutoring programs, alternative education, credit recovery programs, and professional development for teachers that serve adolescents.
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From page 166... ...
. For instance, it is common for schools serving wealthier districts to help their students navigate the college admissions process.
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From page 167... ...
Investigation into the elements of rulefollowing and conformity that are currently required of students is needed to generate policies and practices to better align the structure of secondary schools with the developmental needs of adolescents. In addition, the ways in which families engage youth and become involved in their education is different during adolescence, as compared to the elementary school years (Hill and Tyson, 2009; Hill et al., 2018)
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From page 168... ...
The end result, by middle or high school, is great variability in academic levels and needs, which are particularly pronounced in urban school districts. For example, in the 2017 NAEP, 38 percent of eighth graders in Chicago were below basic level in math, 27 percent were at asic b level, 27 percent were proficient, and 8 percent were advanced.
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From page 169... ...
, the experiences that result in identity development lead to the neural connections and myelination that solidify youths' sense of self and the emotional reactions associated with their experiences. The linkages between one's social identity and future goals are captured by theories related to "possible selves of future identities" (Oyserman, 2015; Oyserman and Destin, 2010)
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From page 170... ...
. The traditional emphasis on grades and test scores, and even on graduation rates, which dates back decades or centuries, may no longer be sufficient and, potentially, may be shortchanging both youth and society.
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From page 171... ...
Then we discuss the development of nonacademic skills such as decision making, practical knowledge, and adaptability. Next, the section examines how schools can better recognize adolescents' integrated needs and create culturally sensitive learning environments.
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From page 172... ...
The problem becomes even more severe in high school, given the growing variation in what youth know, coupled with increased inflexibility in curricular options, inflexibility in the ability to move between academic and vocational offerings, and difficulty in making up work when students fall behind. While the optimal approach for better individualized instruction in the United States remains somewhat unclear, candidate strategies worth exploring further include efforts to help teachers learn to better individualize instruction; opportunities for tutoring; the creation of technologies and staffing that will facilitate more intensive instruction in adequate doses, levels, and topics; efforts aimed at helping students acquire appropriate grade-level skills and knowledge and catch up on missed work or topics not mastered; and opportunities for specialization in topics of interest.
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From page 173... ...
, which found that when students were assigned to 1:1 or small-group (3:1) tutoring, test scores increased by fully 2 standard deviations when compared with regular classroom instruction alone.
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From page 174... ...
. An RCT with 2,700 male high school students from disadvantaged communities showed that 1 year of tutoring, at a cost of between $2,500 and $3,800 per participant, increased math achievement test scores by 0.19 to 0.31 standard deviations, increased math grades by 0.5 standard deviations, and reduced course failures in math by one-half, in addition to reducing failures in non-math courses.
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From page 175... ...
The result was gains in math test scores at the end of the academic year on the order of 0.35 to 0.47 standard deviation, although 1 year later these effects had faded to 0.10 standard deviations. Similarly, Muralidharan and colleagues (2019)
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From page 176... ...
For example, teachers may be able to help keep students motivated to continue with computer-assisted instruction by connecting the content to the specific interests of each student, or by helping ensure students' needs are well-matched to the specific computer program's design. Tracking In principle, an alternative approach is to reduce the heterogeneity in academic levels and needs within a regular classroom setting by sorting youth together based on how they are performing academically -- that is, tracking.8 Some of the strongest empirical evidence about the effects of this practice come from developing countries.
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From page 177... ...
Credentialing At the very least, the U.S. education sector needs to recognize that college may not be the right fit for all students and needs to find other ways to help students succeed in the labor market -- including by providing them with the necessary credentials to succeed.
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From page 178... ...
do not emerge from secondary education with a diffuse and unhelpful "one-size-fits-none" high school diploma, ill-prepared to succeed in a changing job market. While the best way to differentiate educational opportunities for adolescents still remains unclear, there is undoubtedly real value in achieving this goal where possible.
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From page 179... ...
In this section, we discuss ways the education sector can better support the development of decision-making skills, practical knowledge, adaptability, and psychosocial skills for adolescents. Decision-Making Skills To take advantage of the choices and opportunities available to them, adolescents must have ample opportunities to practice sound decision making (Eccles, 2007; Steinberg et al., 2009)
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From page 180... ...
With the traditional emphasis on grades and test scores, an additional area of competence that has lagged is the type of practical
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From page 181... ...
did not find differences in program effectiveness among programs teaching financial literacy as stand-alone offerings and those programs that were integrated into existing curricula in secondary schools. For young adults, participating in financial education programs in college led to increased understanding of financial concepts, the intention to engage in responsible credit card use, the use of budgeting and planning, and fewer compulsive spending decisions (Anderson and Card, 2015; Borden et al., 2008; Bowen and Jones, 2006; Maurer and Lee, 2011)
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From page 182... ...
Schools, teachers, and experiences that encourage opportunities for students to embrace challenges and learn from them support the development of a "growth mindset." Psychosocial Skills A growing understanding of the importance of psychosocial skills, especially in the labor market, highlights the value of having the education sector include them in its focus. There are numerous established approaches for supporting adolescent psychosocial skill development in secondary schools.
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From page 183... ...
Existing studies of PBL implementations tend to focus on comparing student test scores in a district before versus after PBL practices are adopted (Marx et al., 2004; Rivet and Krajcik, 2004)
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From page 184... ...
Current evidence suggests favorable academic and psychological outcomes in secondary schools implementing mindfulness practices (Raes et al., 2014; Zenner et al., 2014)
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From page 185... ...
This section discusses five ways in which schools can recognize these needs: through the assessment of school start times; the provision of physical activity and nutrition programs and activities; the adoption of trauma-informed practices and delivery of mental health services; the creation of safe and supportive school environments; and attention to wraparound services. School Start Times Natural neurological changes in circadian rhythms during adolescence due to hormonal fluctuations cause a misalignment between natural wake times and school schedules (Kirby et al., 2011; Wright et al., 2012; see also Chapter 3)
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From page 186... ...
, and the family schedules of students themselves.10 For school districts, the potential impact on transportation costs is often the primary argument for maintaining current, early start times.11 Given the importance of sleep for adolescents, there would be great value in more research to understand ways to mitigate the costs of later start times, and school district–wide policy changes in school start times provide a naturalistic experimental opportunity to examine associations between adolescent sleep, health, and educational metrics such as absenteeism, grade point average (GPA) , and behavioral reports.
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From page 187... ...
The goal is to increase the conu sumption of healthy foods and create a healthy food environment for students. A study of students at 12 middle schools in a low-income, urban school districts found that students consumed more fruit and ate more of
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From page 188... ...
These multi component interventions, which have been shown to increase physical activity during school hours, typically combine enhanced physical education with other strategies such as health education, classroom physical activity, social marketing initiatives, active transportation to school, and physical environment improvements, among others. These interventions are effective at increasing physical activity during the school day, and when combined with community- and family-based interventions they show strong evidence of increasing physical activity for adolescents outside of school (Sub ommittee of the President's Council on Fitness, Sports c and Nutrition, 2012)
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From page 189... ...
adolescents pose a key challenge to their ability to succeed in school, something that should be as significant a concern to the education sector as it is to the health sector. There are limits to the role schools can play in resolving this issue, of course, and providing mental health services in the school setting is just one way to help students.
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From page 190... ...
These include inclusive, enumerated policies; professional development on LGBTQ issues for educators and other professionals in the school setting; LGBTQ-related resources; and the presence of Genders and Sexualities Allince clubs (GSAs, or Gay-Straight Alliances) in schools (see, e.g., a Russell et al., 2010; Walker and Shinn, 2002)
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From page 191... ...
Disciplinary practices, staff, and curriculum are key contexts where this issue of culturally sensitive learning environments comes into relief. Disciplinary Practices Pressing boundaries, taking risks, and seeking autonomy and independence are hallmark features of adolescence (Steinberg, 2005)
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From page 192... ...
However, it is sometimes a source of tension and conflict as well. As a result, contemporary secondary schools are well-advised to undertake systematic efforts to prevent and resolve conflicts among their students (Gregory et al., 2014; Gregory et al., 2017)
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From page 193... ...
. The increasing divergence between the demographic backgrounds of secondary school teachers and their students makes the risks of a "hidden curriculum" -- one not explicit in textbooks but embedded in the attitudes and behaviors of school staff -- even more acute.
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From page 194... ...
Based on a review of evidence on school size, researchers recommend that secondary schools limit enrollments to between 600 and 1,000 students; the lower end of this range is recommended in particular for schools serving a large proportion of stu
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From page 195... ...
. An RCT of small high schools in New York City carried out by the Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, which exploited randomized admission lotteries to follow students, found that attendance at the small schools increased high school graduation rates by 9.4 percentage points overall (Unterman, 2014)
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From page 196... ...
. Indeed, parental involvement in education is more strongly correlated to academic outcomes in middle and high school than in elementary school and has longer-term implications for school success (Kim and Hill, 2015)
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From page 197... ...
public secondary schools might have made perfect sense for the 19th century industrializing nation for which they were originally designed. But our improved understanding of adolescent development, together with transformative societal changes, have created a mismatch between what adolescents need and what secondary schools are currently designed to deliver.
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From page 198... ...
C. School districts should design flexible schedules for course offerings dur ing the academic year and the summer to enable youth to easily make up classes, recover lost credits, and advance in their course work, espe cially for youth who are over-age and under-credited. In addition, school personnel should help youth and families create specific plans to recover lost credits, to advance in their course work, and to pursue postsecondary job and career opportunities.
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From page 199... ...
. E. foster civic engagement and decision making and to empower youth To to effect change in their communities, school districts and local govern ments should provide youth with opportunities to participate in research designed to improve the agencies that are directed to serve them (e.g., by designing and identifying appropriate research questions, analyzing appropriate data, and drawing recommendations and conclusions)
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From page 200... ...
D. School districts and schools should implement curricula that are culturally inclusive and affirm the value of the diverse ethnic and cultural back grounds represented among students, both in content and learning styles. E. chools and school districts should create curricular opportunities for S culturally relevant content and exposure to perspectives of nondominant groups.
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From page 201... ...
Moreover, as demonstrated in Chapter 4, even when states have closed the gap in public r esources, disparities in family resources and in neighborhood supports have continued to produce disparities in educational outcomes. Unfortunately, it appears that the increasing income segregation of school districts across the country, along with rising income inequality, has prevented society from realizing the full benefit of the significant gains in financial parity among school districts as measured by improving educational outcomes and decreasing disparities in test scores.
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From page 202... ...
During these times, when the labor market opportunity costs of human capital development are lower, the federal government could support older adolescents to obtain additional postsecondary schooling or job training. 16 Head Start aims to "promote school readiness of children ages birth to five from low- income families by supporting their development in a comprehensive way" (Office of Head Start, 2017)
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From page 203... ...
In order to do so, states and localities should provide funding to allow schools to hire sufficient career, vocational, and college counselors who are knowledgeable about the local job markets in order to prepare youth for 21st century jobs and identify internships and apprenticeships to facilitate in training youth for their transition to the job market. Local businesses and school districts should create robust relationships and specific programmatic linkages to ensure that school curricula enable youth to learn the skills and information needed to prepare them for mean
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From page 204... ...
Creating stronger linkages between high schools and community colleges with the specific and intentional goal of creating clearer and more flexible pathways from high schools to jobs is essential. Research is needed on effective collaborations between school districts and the actors in the local economy to develop theories of change and to design effective interventions and programs, to ensure that youth leave high school with skills, knowledge, and access to meaningful jobs and careers in the local economy, and that they are able to adapt to changing social conditions and be lifelong learners.
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From page 205... ...
In addition, students should be provided with opportunities both within classrooms and within the larger school context to regularly make high-mpact decisions in order to develop both decision-making skills and i efficacy for civic engagement. To foster civic engagement and decision making and to empower youth to effect change in their communities, school districts and local governments should provide youth with opportunities to participate in research designed to improve the agencies that are irected to serve them (e.g., by designing and identifying appropriate d research questions, analyzing appropriate data, and drawing recommendations and conclusions)
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From page 206... ...
School districts, in coordination with their local communities, should ensure that adolescents have the time and opportunity to gain sufficient health-promoting physical activity each day. One way to increase physical activity for adolescents is to deploy multicomponent interventions in schools, as recommended by the Subcommittee of the President's Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition (2012)
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From page 207... ...
School districts should assist families in navigating the education sector to identify opportunities and resources to meet the specific educational needs of their adolescents. Summary To meet the challenges of the 21st century, we need an educational system that elicits and supports the development of the whole adolescent.
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