The Promise of Adolescence Realizing Opportunity for All Youth (2019) / Chapter Skim
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2 Adolescent Development
2 Adolescent Development
Pages 37-76
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From page 37... ...
Importantly, although the developmental plasticity that characterizes the period makes adolescents malleable, malleability is not synonymous with passivity. Indeed, adolescents are increasingly active agents in their own developmental process.
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From page 38... ...
This chapter explores three key domains of adolescent development: uberty, neurobiological development, and psychosocial devel pment. p o Within each domain, we highlight processes that reflect the capacity for adaptive plasticity during adolescence and beyond, marking adolescence as a period of unique opportunity for positive developmental trajectories.
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From page 39... ...
Pubertal timing, on the other hand, refers to how mature an adolescent is when compared to his or her same-sex peers who are of the same age. In other words, pubertal timing always includes a reference group of one's peers.
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From page 40... ...
Unlike pubertal status, pubertal timing is not confounded by age because, by definition, pubertal timing is inherently standardized within same-sex, same-age peers typically residing in the same country. Pubertal tempo is a within-the-individual metric that refers to how quickly a person completes these sets of pubertal changes.
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From page 41... ...
. Specifically, accelerated pubertal tempo and early pubertal timing have been associated with stressors, including child hood sexual abuse and physical abuse, obesity, prematurity, light exposure, f ather absence, and exposure to endocrine disruptors (such as chemicals in plastics, pesticides, hair-care products, and many meat and dairy items)
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From page 42... ...
. The distinctive role for early pubertal timing suggests that the heightened sexual circumstances of puberty may be especially challenging for girls whose lives have already been disrupted by adverse early experiences, yet also suggests a potential opportunity for intervention and resilience, particularly in later adolescence, once pubertal development is complete.
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From page 43... ...
The Social Context of Pubertal Maturation Despite the role that stressful early life events play in accelerating pubertal timing, it is important to note that adolescence is also a period of potential for recovery. Even when an adolescent has experienced early adversity and this has precipitated earlier pubertal maturation, the social context in which that adolescent is developing can ultimately change the trajectory
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From page 44... ...
. Social consequences may be exacerbated among youth experiencing early pubertal timing.
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From page 45... ...
In girls, relatively early pubertal timing and faster pubertal tempo often mark an increased risk for adolescent substance use (Cance et al., 2013; Castellanos-Ryan et al., 2013; Costello et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2014)
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From page 46... ...
Despite this limitation, research on associations between stress exposure and pubertal timing and tempo makes clear the importance of early experiences and highlights the role of social determinants of health. Stressful living conditions are related to earlier pubertal timing and accelerated pubertal tempo.
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From page 47... ...
In the following sections, we summarize current research on structural and functional brain changes taking place over the course of adolescence. Our summary begins with a focus on morphological changes in gray and white matter, followed by a discussion of structural changes in regions of the brain that have particular relevance for adolescent cognitive and social functioning.
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From page 48... ...
. In contrast, cortical white matter, which reflects myelin growth, was shown to increase steadily throughout adolescence and into early adulthood, reflecting increased connectivity among brain regions (Lenroot and Giedd, 2006)
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From page 49... ...
The widely held belief about a peak in cortical gray matter around puberty followed by declines throughout adolescence was based on the best available evidence at the time. New studies show steady declines in cortical volume beginning in late childhood and continuing through middle adolescence.
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From page 50... ...
may change within the adolescent brain. In fact, some neural circuity, consisting of networks of synaptic connections, is extremely malleable during adolescence, as connections form and
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From page 51... ...
. Structural Changes in the Adolescent Brain Two key neurodevelopmental processes are most reliably observed during adolescence.
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From page 52... ...
s There has been a particular emphasis on understanding "risky" behavior through the lens of developmental neuroscience. Risk-taking can be driven by a tendency for sensation-seeking, in which individuals exhibit an increased attraction toward novel and intense sensations and experiences despite their possible risks (Steinberg, 2008; Zuckerman and Kuhlman, 2000)
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From page 53... ...
Instead, impulsive choice declines from childhood to adulthood, reflecting the trend of increasing, prefrontal-regulated executive functions throughout adolescence (van den Bos et al., 2015)
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From page 54... ...
. Rethinking the "Mismatch" Between the Emotional and Rational Brain Systems Regardless of whether one of these two models more accurately represents connections between adolescent neurobiological development and behavior, both perspectives converge on the same point: fundamental areas of the brain undergo asynchronous development throughout adolescence.
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From page 55... ...
. As the cortical regions continue to develop and activity within and across brain regions becomes more synchronized, adolescents gain the capacity to make rational, goal-directed decisions across contexts and conditions.
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From page 56... ...
. Cognitive Correlates of Adolescent Brain Development Reflective of the ongoing changes in the brain described above, most teens become more efficient at processing information, learning, and reasonng over the course of adolescence (Byrnes, 2003; Kuhn, 2006, i 2009)
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From page 57... ...
. Such flexibility may result in an improved ability to learn to navigate the increasingly complex social challenges that are part of adolescents' social worlds, and as adolescents encounter increasing opportunities for autonomy it may prove to be adaptive.
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From page 58... ...
. Indeed, the temporal discrepancy in the specialization of and connections between cortical and subcortical brain regions makes adolescence unique.
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From page 59... ...
It requires adolescents to integrate multiple perspectives and experiences across contexts, and also to deepen their ability to make sense of complex and abstract phenomena. This section begins with a summary of developmental trends in adolescent self- and identity development at a broad level, followed by a brief discussion of how these trends reflect recent findings from developmental neuroscience.
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From page 60... ...
argued that during adolescence, youth take on the challenge of developing a coherent, integrated, and stable sense of themselves, and that failing to do so may make the transition to adult roles and responsibilities more difficult. Erikson's concept of identity development assumes opportunities for exploration and choice and may or may not generalize across global contexts (Arnett, 2015; Syed, 2017)
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From page 61... ...
. In middle adolescence, teens may still hold onto multiple and disjointed abstractions of themselves; however, their growing cognitive abilities allow for more frequent comparisons among the inconsistencies, and heightened awareness of these contradictions can create some stress (Brummelman and Thomaes, 2017; Harter, 2012)
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From page 62... ...
For instance, the integrated- circuitry model of adolescent brain development discussed in the previous section (Casey et al., 2016) , along with other models emphasizing the growing integration within and between emotionally sensitive brain regions (e.g., the limbic system)
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From page 63... ...
Indeed, in the context of increasingly complex cognitive abilities and social demands, youth may be more likely to contest, negotiate, elaborate upon, and internalize the meaning of membership in racial/ethnic, gender, sexual, and other social identity groups (e.g., Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014)
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From page 64... ...
For instance, the positive association between having a complex social identity and holding more inclusive attitudes toward others
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From page 65... ...
. Social Identity and Neurobiology Cultural neuroscience provides some insight into how social identity development may manifest at the neurobiological level, although there is still much work to be done to understand the deep associations between b iology and culture (Mrazek et al., 2015)
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From page 66... ...
9 Identity Development in Context Identity development takes place in specific socio-cultural, political, and historical contexts. As an example, consider recent cultural and political shifts regarding same-sex relationships in the United States: in the period of one generation there has been dramatic social change regarding understanding and awareness of LGBTQ lives and issues.
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From page 67... ...
An adolescent's identity is an emerging reflection of his or her values, beliefs, and aspirations, and it can be constructed and reconstructed over time and experience. Multiple factors -- family, culture, peers, media -- shape identity development, but young people are also active agents in the process.
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From page 68... ...
" As adolescents grow older, they have more opportunities to make their own choices in domains that matter for future outcomes, and their capacity to make such choices also increases; Box 2-1 describes youths' perspectives on this emerging autonomy, agency, and independence. In the following section, we discuss developmental changes in autonomy, purpose, and agency in adolescence.
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From page 69... ...
Lack of support, lack of knowledge of how to become an "adult," and stressors related to developing identity, relationships, increased responsibilities, and financial concerns were prominent themes. "Stressful.
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From page 70... ...
This increase in desired autonomy s among younger teens maps onto findings that older teens report having more autonomy across multiple domains than their younger peers. Not only do young adolescents have less autonomy than older youth, they also tend to overestimate how much autonomy their peers have; in other words, younger adolescents tend to think their friends are allowed to have more control over their choices and behaviors than they actually do.
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From page 71... ...
. In addition to the vmPFC and the anterior cingulate cortex regions of the brain implicated in personal identity development, researchers speculate that the temporoparietal junction may be implicated in culturally embedded identities that orient youth toward inde endence or inter ependence (Cheon p d et al., 2011; Mrazek et al., 2015; Saxe et al., 2009)
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. Moreover, there is evidence that purpose helps explain associations between identity commitment and positive youth adjustment (Burrow and Hill, 2011)
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. In relation to research on community leadership and action, recent work has examined the construct of "critical consciousness" among adolescents (Watts et al., 2011)
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From page 74... ...
Continuing shifts in the social, cultural, economic, and technological contexts in which today's adolescents are developing require thoughtful consideration as to how, when, and where adolescents can find and act upon ideas and issues they find meaningful. For example, religion has tradi ionally been a context where youth have found purpose and meaning, t and religious involvement is associated with civic engagement (Furrow et al., 2004; Pew Research Center, 2019; Sumner et al., 2018)
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From page 75... ...
What are the "windows of opportunity" for promoting a positive developmental trajectory and adaptive plasticity? What are the mechanisms that shape developmental trajectories, for better or worse, during adolescence and over the life course?
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