Reducing Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Phase Two Final Report (2020) / Chapter Skim
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8 Battery Technology for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
8 Battery Technology for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Pages 233-258
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From page 233... ...
battery cell energy density and useful life; (2) battery pack reliability, thermal management, and safety; and (3)
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Although the basic chemistry may be appropriate for use in transportation, the application of such batteries to large-power battery packs has been the focus of the automotive and its Tier 1 supplier industry for the past 15 to 20 years. Advances in electrical control and thermal management have allowed increasing penetration into most current and future hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
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As previously discussed, Li-ion battery chemistries offer a higher level of specific energy than lead-acid, NiMH, and Ni-Cd types. Figure 8-3 provides additional details about the electrochemical function of Li-ion batteries.
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236 REDUCING FUEL CONSUMPTION AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES TABLE 8-1 Hybrid Models in Light-Duty Vehicles in 2014 Manufacturer Model Sales CY 2014 U.S. Hybrid Share 2013 Architecture Toyota Prius Liftback 122,776 0.2715 PS Toyota Prius C 40,570 0.0897 PS Toyota Camry Hybrid 39,515 0.0874 PS Ford Fusion Hybrid 35,405 0.0783 PS Toyota Prius V 30,762 0.0680 PS Hyundai Sonata 21,052 0.0466 P2 Ford C-Max Hybrid 19,162 0.0424 PS Lexus CT200h 17,673 0.0391 PS Toyota Avalon Hybrid 17,048 0.0377 PS Lexus ES Hybrid 14,837 0.0328 PS Honda Accord Hybrid 13,997 0.0310 i-MMD Kia Optima Hybrid 13,776 0.0305 P2 Lincoln MKZ 10,033 0.0222 PS Lexus RX 400 / 450 h 9,351 0.0207 PS Subaru XV Crosstrek Hybrid 7,926 0.0175 Other Buick Lacrosse Hybrid 7,353 0.0163 MH w IMA Honda Civic Hybrid 5,070 0.0112 MH w IMA Honda Insight 3,965 < 0.01 MH w IMA and CVT Toyota Highlander Hybrid 3,621 < 0.01 PS Honda CR-Z 3,562 < 0.01 MH w IMA and CVT or M6 Infiniti Q50 Hybrid 3,456 < 0.01 PS Nissan Pathfinder Hybrida 2,480 < 0.01 P2 Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid 1,939 < 0.01 P2 Infiniti QX 60 Hybrida 1,678 < 0.01 P2 with CVT Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid 1,018 < 0.01 SS Buick Regal Hybrid 662 < 0.01 MH Porsche Cayenne Hybrid 650 < 0.01 P2 Chevrolet Impala Hybrid 565 < 0.01 SS Acura ILX Hybrid 379 < 0.01 P2 Audi Q5 Hybrid 283 < 0.01 P2 Lexus GS 450h 183 < 0.01 PS Infiniti Q70 Hybrid 180 < 0.01 Mercedes E400H 158 < 0.01 P2 BMW Active(335ih)
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BATTERY TECHNOLOGY FOR MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES 237 FIGURE 8-2 Basic battery structure and working principle showing electron and ion flow, and major battery components of the anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, and load. FIGURE 8-3 Lithium-ion structure and battery working principle illustrating charging of the battery by electron flow from the cathode to the anode through the charger, resulting in lithium separation from the cathode, and flow across the separator and intercalation into the anode material.
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: FePO4 + Li+ + e– → LiFePO4 Li ions go through the separator. Understanding Li-ion cell functionality is important in understanding the major advances that have been achieved in light-duty vehicle applications and the challenges which must be overcome in the development of battery designs which trade off all of the parameters necessary for commercialization in medium- and heavy-duty trucks.
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This suggests that no single chemistry is either optimum or preferred. 8.2 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT LITHIUM BATTERY CHEMISTRIES, PERFORMANCE, AND APPLICATIONS Figure 8-1, presented in the beginning of this chapter, showed a graphic representation of specific energy capacity versus specific power of different basic battery chemistries.
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. FIGURE 8-5 Comparison of specific energy densities for common battery chemistries.
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The specific energy or capacity of a battery pack is directly related to the total operational time before recharging is necessary. In the case of hybrid and electric vehicles, this corresponds to electric mileage or electric range.
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FIGURE 8-6 Relative performance, functional and safety characteristics of six leading Li-ion battery chemistries. SOURCE: Battery University (2016)
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Lithium titanate demostrates relatively low specific energy and specific power, but its very long life span, excellent cold weather performance, and very high safety have made it the choice for some commercial applications (UPS) and certain lightweight electric vehicles (iMEV, Honda Fit EV)
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This could lead to higher durability or reliability, especially in the application for commercial vehicles. The composition of a Li-ion battery can be briefly summarized as • Active material laminated to an aluminum collector at the cathode; • Carbon-based material deposited on a copper collector at the anode; • Anode and cathode, separated by a nonconductive film known as the separator; • Layers of anode and cathode stacked with separators; • Anode layers electrically joined (welded)
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o Battery resistance increases with calendar life; thus, retained capacity decreases. Optimum storage temp is below 30°C.
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• Vent o Battery pack mounted inside the cabin has cell venting strategy to eject vent gases outside. In addition to the battery pack components, there are other major parts to the electric drive system, which include the following: • DC-to-DC Converter o Reduces batteries DC voltage to required DC voltage to run electronics/accessories.
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8.3 INFLUENCE OF MEDIUM- AND HEAVY-DUTY USAGE ON BATTERY PERFORMANCE In some cases, experience gained in light-duty usage sheds some light on the challenges which may be expe rienced in commercial vehicle applications. The report Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (NRC, 2015b)
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, the energy efficiency of PHEV and BEV passenger cars is approximately 200 to 400 Wh/mile, based upon vehicle weight, performance, aerodynamics, rolling resistance, etc.5 These parameters are characterized by • Approximately 5 to 12 kWh usable battery capacity for 30 miles of electric driving, • A 2-sec high-power performance of 30 to 60 kW, and • A power/energy ratio from 1.0 to 12.0. FIGURE 8-10 DOE battery technology development status in fiscal year 2016 relative to 2012.
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Table 8-5 identifies some of the technical goals that have been guiding advanced battery technology development for lightduty vehicles in recent years. Significant progress has been made in achieving performance targets, while reducing the level of cooling and still achieving acceptable safety and durability.
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One major topic of interest for the development of commercial vehicle hybrid and electric propulsion systems is future battery chemistries which may address the functional and safety requirements for such vocational vehicles. Figure 8-13 provides a graphical representation of potential improvements in cell voltage and energy capacity which may be accomplished with new cathode and anode materials.
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. FIGURE 8-12 Cost reduction approach for energy storage systems.
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, reprinted by permission from RightsLink: Springer Nature, Tarascon & Armand, 2001. FIGURE 8-14 Potential cost of future battery chemistries.
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8.5 RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendation 8-1: EPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) should recognize the challenging performance, reliability, and safety requirements for commercial vehicles and coordinate with DOE, commercial battery suppliers, and international organizations to promote a timeline for development of battery chemistries and pack technologies which will allow the safe and efficient introduction of hybrid and all-electric drive of commercial vehicles, especially in highly-populated urban centers.
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(Wh/kg) Company Model AESC G/LMO-NCA 33 Pouch 3.75 0.80 0.40 309 155 Nissan Leaf LG Chem G/NMC-LMO 36 Pouch 3.75 0.86 0.49 275 157 Renault Zoe Li-Tec G/NMC 52 Pouch 3.65 1.25 0.60 316 152 Daimler Smart Li Energy Japan G/LMO-NMC 50 Prismatic 3.7 1.70 0.85 218 109 Mitsubishi i-MiEV Samsung G/NMC-LMO 64 Prismatic 3.7 1.80 0.97 243 132 Fiat 500 Lishen Tianjin G-LFP 16 Prismatic 3.25 0.45 0.23 226 116 Coda EV Toshiba LTO-NMC 20 Prismatic 2.3 0.52 0.23 200 89 Honda Fit Panasonic G/NCA 3.1 Cylindrical 3.6 0.048 0.018 630 233 Tesla Model S Tesla-Panasonic's current cell offers specific energy 50 percent higher than competition.
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(HHD) Class Class Class Battery Battery Power Electric 2b-3 Class 2b-3 4-5 Class 4 Class 5 6-7 Class 6-7 Class 8 Class 8 Cells Pack Electronics Motor Specs Cost Specs Cost Cost Specs Cost Specs Cost Micro-Hybrid with Stop-Start Low Cost 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 1.5 $750.00 2.0 $1,000.00 $1,000.00 2.5 $1,250.00 3.5 $1,750.00 2022 $/kWh $130.00 $36.00 1.5 $249.00 2.0 $332.00 $332.00 2.5 $415.00 3.5 $581.00 2030 $/kWh $110.00 $25.00 1.5 $202.50 2.0 $270.00 $270.00 2.5 $337.50 3.5 $472.50 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 10 $300.00 15 $450.00 $450.00 20 $600.00 35 $1,050.00 2022 $/kW $3.60 $5.20 10 $88.00 15 $132.00 $132.00 20 $176.00 35 $308.00 2030 $/kW $3.30 $4.70 10 $80.00 15 $120.00 $120.00 20 $160.00 35 $280.00 Rest of System $140.00 $260.00 $280.00 $300.00 $500.00 2015 Total Cost $1,190.00 $1,710.00 $1,710.00 $2,150.00 $3,300.00 2022 Total Cost $477.00 $724.00 $744.00 $891.00 $1,389.00 2030 Total Cost $422.50 $650.00 $670.00 $797.50 $1,252.50 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 1.5 $750.00 2.0 $1,000.00 $1,000.00 2.5 $1,250.00 3.5 $1,750.00 2022 $/kWh $140.00 $40.00 1.5 $270.00 2.0 $360.00 $360.00 2.5 $450.00 3.5 $630.00 2030 $/kWh $125.00 $25.00 1.5 $225.00 2.0 $300.00 $300.00 2.5 $375.00 3.5 $525.00 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 10 $300.00 15 $450.00 $450.00 20 $600.00 35 $1,050.00 2022 $/kW $4.50 $6.50 10 $110.00 15 $165.00 $165.00 20 $220.00 35 $385.00 2030 $/kW $4.00 $5.60 10 $96.00 15 $144.00 $144.00 20 $192.00 35 $336.00 Rest of System $160.00 $275.00 $325.00 $330.00 $550.00 2015 Total Cost $1,210.00 $1,725.00 $1,775.00 $2,180.00 $3,350.00 2022 Total Cost $540.00 $800.00 $850.00 $1,000.00 $1,565.00 2030 Total Cost $481.00 $719.00 $739.00 $897.00 $1,411.00 SOURCE: Committee generated estimates from the synthesis of its information gathering.
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(HHD) Class Class Class Battery Battery Power Electric 2b-3 Class 2b-3 4-5 Class 4 Class 5 6-7 Class 6-7 Class 8 Cells Pack Electronics Motor Specs Cost Specs Cost Cost Specs Cost Specs Class 8 Cost Mild Hybrid with Regen/Launch and Stop-Start Low Cost 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 5 $2,500.00 8 $4,000.00 $4,000.00 15 $7,500.00 20 $10,000.00 2022 $/kWh $130.00 $36.00 5 $830.00 8 $1,328.00 $1,328.00 15 $2,490.00 20 $3,320.00 2030 $/kWh $110.00 $25.00 5 $675.00 8 $1,080.00 $1,080.00 15 $2,025.00 20 $2,700.00 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 60 $1,800.00 120 $3,600.00 $3,600.00 200 $6,000.00 200 $6,000.00 2022 $/kW $3.60 $5.20 60 $528.00 120 $1,056.00 $1,056.00 200 $1,760.00 200 $1,760.00 2030 $/kW $3.30 $4.70 60 $480.00 120 $960.00 $960.00 200 $1,600.00 200 $1,600.00 Rest of System $850.00 $2,200.00 $2,200.00 $3,600.00 $5,000.00 2015 Total Cost $5,150.00 $9,800.00 $9,800.00 $17,100.00 $21,000.00 2022 Total Cost $2,208.00 $4,584.00 $4,584.00 $7,850.00 $10,080.00 2030 Total Cost $2,005.00 $4,240.00 $4,260.00 $7,225.00 $9,300.00 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 5 $2,500.00 8 $4,000.00 $4,000.00 15 $7,500.00 20 $10,000.00 2022 $/kWh $140.00 $40.00 5 $900.00 8 $1,440.00 $1,440.00 15 $2,700.00 20 $3,600.00 2030 $/kWh $125.00 $25.00 5 $750.00 8 $1,200.00 $1,200.00 15 $2,250.00 20 $3,000.00 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 60 $1,800.00 120 $3,600.00 $3,600.00 200 $6,000.00 200 $6,000.00 2022 $/kW $4.50 $6.50 60 $660.00 120 $1,320.00 $1,320.00 200 $2,200.00 200 $2,200.00 2030 $/kW $4.00 $5.60 60 $576.00 120 $1,152.00 $1,152.00 200 $1,920.00 200 $1,920.00 Rest of System $875.00 $2,250.00 $2,300.00 $3,725.00 $5,900.00 2015 Total Cost $5,175.00 $9,850.00 $9,850.00 $17,225.00 $21,900.00 2022 Total Cost $2,435.00 $5,010.00 $5,060.00 $8,625.00 $11,700.00 2030 Total Cost $2,201.00 $4,602.00 $4,652.00 $7,895.00 $10,820.00 continued
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(HHD) Class Class Class Battery Battery Power Electric 2b-3 Class 2b-3 4-5 Class 5 6-7 Class 6-7 Class 8 Cells Pack Electronics Motor Specs Cost Specs Class 4 Cost Cost Specs Cost Specs Class 8 Cost HEV with Full Performance Low Cost 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 10 $5,000.00 15 $7,500.00 $7,500.00 20 $10,000.00 40 $20,000.00 2022 $/kWh $130.00 $36.00 10 $1,660.00 15 $2,490.00 $2,490.00 20 $3,320.00 40 $6,640.00 2030 $/kWh $110.00 $25.00 10 $1,350.00 15 $2,025.00 $2,025.00 20 $2,700.00 40 $5,400.00 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 180 $5,400.00 220 $6,600.00 $6,600.00 250 $7,500.00 300 $9,000.00 2022 $/kW $3.60 $5.20 180 $1,584.00 220 $1,936.00 $1,936.00 250 $2,200.00 300 $2,640.00 2030 $/kW $3.30 $4.70 180 $1,440.00 220 $1,760.00 $1,760.00 250 $2,000.00 300 $2,400.00 Rest of System $1,850.00 $3,000.00 $3,000.00 $4,500.00 $5,500.00 2015 Total Cost $12,250.00 $17,100.00 $17,100.00 $22,000.00 $34,500.00 2022 Total Cost $5,094.00 $7,426.00 $7,426.00 $10,020.00 $14,780.00 2030 Total Cost $4,640.00 $6,785.00 $6,785.00 $9,200.00 $13,300.00 2015 $/kWh $420.00 $80.00 10 $5,000.00 15 $7,500.00 $7,500.00 20 $10,000.00 40 $20,000.00 2022 $/kWh $140.00 $40.00 10 $1,800.00 15 $2,700.00 $2,700.00 20 $3,600.00 40 $7,200.00 2030 $/kWh $125.00 $25.00 10 $1,500.00 15 $2,250.00 $2,250.00 20 $3,000.00 40 $6,000.00 2015 $/kW $12.00 $18.00 180 $5,400.00 220 $6,600.00 $6,600.00 250 $7,500.00 300 $9,000.00 2022 $/kW $4.50 $6.50 180 $1,980.00 220 $2,420.00 $2,420.00 250 $2,750.00 300 $3,300.00 2030 $/kW $4.00 $5.60 180 $1,728.00 220 $2,112.00 $2,112.00 250 $2,400.00 300 $2,880.00 Rest of System $1,950.00 $3,200.00 $3,400.00 $4,750.00 $6,000.00 2015 Total Cost $12,350.00 $17,300.00 $17,500.00 $22,250.00 $35,000.00 2022 Total Cost $5,730.00 $8,320.00 $8,520.00 $11,100.00 $16,500.00 2030 Total Cost $5,178.00 $7,562.00 $7,762.00 $10,150.00 $14,880.00 257
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2014. "Current Trends in Battery Technology," presented at Electric Commercial Vehicles National Seminar, September 24.
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