A Research Strategy for Ocean-based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration (2022) / Chapter Skim
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To help meet that goal, four land-based CDR approaches are ready for large-scale deployment: afforestation/reforestation, changes in forest management, uptake and storage by agricultural soils, and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, based on the potential to remove carbon at costs below $100/t CO2. The 2019 report did not examine the more global ocean-based approaches but did recognize the potential for ocean-based CDR and the need for a research strategy to explore these options.
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a number of physical, geochemical, and biological processes are known to influence air–sea CO2 gas exchange and ocean carbon storage. By acting to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and upper ocean and then store the excess carbon either in marine or geological reservoirs for some period of time, ocean CDR approaches could complement CO2 emission reductions and contribute to the portfolio of climate response strategies needed to limit climate change and surface ocean acidification over coming decades and centuries.
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The carbon dioxide removal approaches to be examined include: • Iron, nitrogen, or phosphorus fertilization • Artificial upwelling and downwelling • Seaweed cultivation • Recovery of ocean and coastal ecosystems, including large marine organisms • Ocean alkalinity enhancement • Electrochemical approaches. surface waters is pumped into the surface ocean.
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4 A RESEARCH STRATEGY FOR OCEAN-BASED CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL AND SEQUESTRATION FIGURE S.1 Ocean-based CDR approaches explored in this report.
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Across all approaches, knowledge gaps remain in determining carbon sequestration efficacy, scaling, and durability, as well as environmental and social impacts and costs. Common Challenges of Ocean CDR Knowledge: The knowledge base is inadequate, based in many cases only on laboratory-scale experiments, conceptual theory and/or numerical models and needs to be expanded to better understand risks and benefits to responsibly scale up any of the ocean-based CDR approaches.
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. Efficacy Medium–High Low Confidence Medium Low–Medium High Confidence High Confidence What is the Confidence Upwelling of deep Confidence Confidence Need to conduct field Monitoring within an confidence level that BCP known to work and water also brings a The growth and Given the diversity deployments to assess enclosed engineered this approach will productivity enhancement source of CO2 that can sequestration of of approaches and CDR, alterations system, CO2 stored remove atmospheric evident.
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for return of excess CO2 to surface ocean. Scalability Medium–High Medium Medium Low–Medium Medium–High Medium–High Potential scalability Potential C removal Potential C removal Potential C removal Potential C removal Potential C removal Potential C removal at some future date >0.1–1.0 Gt CO2/yr >0.1 Gt CO2/yr and >0.1 Gt CO2/yr and <0.1–1.0 Gt CO2/yr >0.1–1.0 Gt CO2/yr >0.1–1.0 Gt CO2/yr with global-scale (medium confidence)
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Possible toxic effect Impact on the undesirable impacts increase NPP but upwelling also impacts are Environmental impacts of nickel and other ocean is possibly consequences at and carbon sequestration affects the ocean's potentially would be generally leachates of olivine constrained to the scale (unknown, low, due to changes in density field and sea- detrimental viewed as positive. on biota, bio-optical point of effluent medium, high)
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(low confidence) (medium confidence)
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Cost and challenges Medium High Low–Medium High Low–Medium Low–Medium of carbon accounting Challenges tracking Local and additionality The amount of Monitoring net effect Accounting more Relative cost and additional local carbon monitoring needed harvested and on carbon sequestration difficult for addition scientific challenge sequestration and for carbon accounting sequestered is challenging. of minerals and nonassociated with impacts on carbon fluxes similar to OIF.
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This cost of monitoring for ecosystem Need to track impacts recovery may be lower. beyond carbon cycle on marine ecosystems (low, medium, high)
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Table S.2 summarizes the foundational research identified in Chapters 2 and 9 as research priorities common across ocean CDR approaches including potential social, policy, legal, and regulatory considerations. The research included in Table S.2 is meant to inform the framework for any future ocean-based CDR effort.
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Common Components No single research framework will be adequate for all CDR approaches within a comprehensive research strategy, because knowledge base and readiness levels differ substantially. There are, however, several common components that are relevant to research into any ocean CDR approach.
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view and use monitoring data, including certification Analysis of policy mechanisms and innovation pathways, including $1–2M/yr 2 $2M–$4M the economics of scale-up Development of standardized environmental monitoring and carbon $0.2M/yr 3 $0.6M accounting methods for ocean CDR Development of a coordinated research infrastructure to promote $2M/yr 3–4 $6M–$8M transparent research Development of a publicly accessible data management strategy for $2–3M/yr 2 $4M–$6M ocean CDR research Development of a coordinated plan for science communication $5M/yr 10 $50M and public engagement of ocean CDR research in the context of decarbonization and climate response Development of a common code of conduct for ocean CDR research $1M/yr 2 $2M Total Estimated Research Budget $29M/yr 2–10 $125M (Assumes all 6 CDR approaches moving ahead)
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Total Budget Ocean Fertilization Carbon sequestration delivery and bioavailability $5M/yr 5 $25M Tracking carbon sequestration $3M/yr 5 $15M In-field experiments, >100 t Fe and >1,000 km2 initial patch size $25M/yr 10 $250M followed over annual cycles Monitoring carbon and ecological shifts $10M/yr 10 $100M Experimental planning and extrapolation to global scales $5M/yr 10 $50M Total Estimated Research Budget $48M/yr 5–10 $440M Estimated Budget of Research Priorities $33M/yr 5–10 $290M Artificial Upwelling and Downwelling Technological readiness: Limited and controlled open-ocean trials $5M/yr 5 $25M to determine durability and operability of artificial upwelling technologies (~100 pumps tested in various conditions) Feasibility studies $1M/yr 1 $1M Tracking carbon sequestration $3M/yr 5 $15M Modeling of carbon sequestration based on achievable upwelling $5M/yr 5 $25M velocities and known stoichiometry of deep-water sources.
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Laboratory and mesocosm experiments to explore impacts on $10M/yr 5 $50M physiology and functionality of organisms/communities Field experiments $15M/yr 5–10 $75M–$150M Research into the development of appropriate monitoring and accounting $10 5–10 $50M–$100M schemes, covering CDR potential and possible side effects Total Estimated Research Budget $45M/yr 5–10 $180M–$350M Estimated Budget of Research Priorities $25M/yr 5–10 $125–$200M Electrochemical Processes Demonstration projects including CDR verification and $30M/yr 5 $150M environmental monitoring Development and assessment of novel and improved electrode and $10M/yr 5 $50M membrane materials Assessment of environmental impact and acid management strategies $7.5M/yr 10 $75M Coupling whole rock dissolution to electrochemical reactors and $7.5M/yr 10 $75M systems Development of hybrid approaches $7.5M/yr 10 $75M Resource mapping and pathway assessment $10M/yr 5 $50M Total Estimated Research Budget $72.5M/yr 5–10 $475M Estimated Budget of Research Priorities $55M/yr 5–10 $350M
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Among the biotic approaches, research on ocean iron fertilization and seaweed cultivation offer the greatest opportunities for evaluating the viability of possible biotic ocean CDR approaches; research on the potential CDR and sequestration permanence for ecosystem recovery would also be beneficial in the context of ongoing marine conservation efforts. For abiotic ocean CDR approaches, the research agenda (Table S.3)
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CONCLUDING REMARKS Ocean CDR approaches are already being discussed widely, and in some cases promoted, by scientists, nongovernmental organizations, and entrepreneurs as potential climate response strategies. At present, society and policy makers lack sufficient knowledge to fully evaluate ocean CDR outcomes and weigh the trade-offs with other climate response approaches, including climate adaptation and emissions mitigation, and with environmental and sustainable development goals.
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