Review of Fate, Exposure, and Effects of Sunscreens in Aquatic Environments and Implications for Sunscreen Usage and Human Health (2022) / Chapter Skim
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, this report reviews the state of science on the sources and inputs, fate, exposure, and effects of UV filters in aquatic environments and the availability and applicability of data for conducting ERAs. It also reviews the epidemiological and clinical literature on the efficacy of sunscreen in preventing UV damage to human skin, the state of knowledge on potential human behavior changes, and the resulting health impacts related to skin cancer prevention from changes in sunscreen usage (e.g., reducing sunscreen use or switching to sunscreens with different active ingredients)
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However, disentangling tonnage estimates between sunscreens and other product uses, especially other personal care products, is challenging. From a review of multiple data sources, the committee found that the UV filters in most common use in personal care products marketed in the United States are avobenzone, homosalate, octinoxate, octocrylene, octisalate, oxybenzone, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.
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(1314-13-2) SOURCES AND INPUTS OF UV FILTERS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT Direct Release of UV Filters During Surface Water Contact Activities Direct release of UV filters can potentially occur during aquatic recreation (via rinse off into the water)
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In the case of combined sewer systems, wherein occasionally during larger rainfall events untreated sewage and rainfall runoff bypass the wastewater treatment plant facility entirely, UV filters and other contaminants can be discharged with no or limited treatment into surface waters. FATE CHARACTERISTICS OF UV FILTERS Once released to the environment, UV filters can partition into different environmental compartments (e.g., air, water, sediment, organisms)
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Although predicted estimates are typically above concentrations of UV filters measured in surface waters, modeled and measured aquatic and sediment concentration data provide ranges, including potential upper bounds, on exposure levels of UV filters to organisms. BIOACCUMULATION AND MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS IN BIOTA Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of a chemical into an organism via all routes of exposure.
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Sufficient data are available for the development of acute SSDs for oxybenzone, octinoxate, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide and chronic SSDs for oxybenzone and zinc oxide. Otherwise, significant gaps remain related to the availability of studies on nonstandard organisms (especially marine organisms)
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lead to cumulative or interacting effects with UV filters. These cooccurring stressors can include multiple UV filters due to the mixtures found in sunscreen formulations, other chemicals, and environmental stressors (e.g., increasing temperatures, salinity, UV radiation)
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Among the global predominant stressors on aquatic ecosystems, increasing temperature has been shown to be a major stressor on its own, but it is also known to exacerbate the effects of toxicants and is important to consider when assessing effects and risks from UV filters in aquatic environments. SUNSCREEN EFFICACY AND USE FOR HUMAN HEALTH Exposure to UVR causes sunburn and photoaging in human skin and is a risk factor for the development of skin cancers, both keratinocyte carcinomas and melanomas.
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There are only a few empirical publications that report on consumer attitudes and knowledge about potential effects on aquatic environments, including coral reefs. POTENTIAL CHANGES TO SUNSCREEN USE AND THE HUMAN HEALTH CONSEQUENCES Restrictions on certain UV filters may have negative impacts on the use of sunscreen to prevent skin cancer, sunburn, and photoaging if they lead to reduced sunscreen usage.
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, and sunscreen formulators and UV filter manufacturers should conduct, fund or support, and share research and data on sources, fate processes, environmental concentrations, bioaccumulation studies, modes of action, and ecological and toxicity testing for UV filters alone and as part of sunscreen formulations. Additionally, epidemiological risk modeling and behavioral studies related to sunscreen usage should be conducted to better understand human health outcomes from changing availability and usage.
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