Review of Fate, Exposure, and Effects of Sunscreens in Aquatic Environments and Implications for Sunscreen Usage and Human Health (2022) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 38-69
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From page 38... ...
EPA, 1992, 1997, 1998. SOURCES AND INPUTS OF UV FILTERS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT UV filter use in various consumer products and personal care products, as discussed in Chapter 2, results in a wide variety of potential routes of entry into the environment that include direct "point sources" (e.g., rinse-off from bathers in surface waters, municipal wastewater treatment effluent, industrial discharges)
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From page 39... ...
Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 4, the form of the UV filter at the point of rinse-off (i.e., as single discrete organic molecules or as macromolecular assemblages with other formulation components) may significantly impact the environmental fate processes, particularly if any macromolecular associations persist in aquatic environments.
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From page 40... ...
. Thus, urination in water bodies may present an additional source to aquatic environments during recreation.
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From page 41... ...
Municipal wastewater from homes, hotels, and other buildings may contain UV filters due to sunscreen rinse-off from shower/bathing (due to use of sunscreen for daily activities, outdoor recreation, or remaining on the skin after aquatic activities) , rinse-off during shower/bathing of other personal care products containing the UV filters, and/or discharges from manufacturers/industry that incorporate UV filters into products.
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From page 42... ...
While most treated wastewater is discharged to surface waters, in some regional cases treated wastewater is infiltrated or injected into groundwater, used in industrial cooling facilities, evaporated from lined ponds, or applied to agricultural crops. In addition to the liquid effluent discharge, sewage solids (biosolids)
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From page 43... ...
. The following sections describe the potential removal of UV filters in effluent through the different types of wastewater treatment systems, starting with on-site treatment systems and then progressing to larger communitybased treatment systems.
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44 IMPLICATIONS OF SUNSCREEN USAGE FOR AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS AND HUMAN HEALTH FIGURE 3.2 Percentage of residents using on-site wastewater systems in U.S. states.
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From page 45... ...
Separately, in a review considering many different personal care products from 20 distinct studies of conventional versus alternative onsite treatment systems (e.g., sand filters, aerobic treatment units, wetlands, peat-based systems, and biofilters) , oxybenzone concentrations in the effluents were reported; median (maximum)
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From page 46... ...
For the broad range of trace organic chemicals, removal efficiencies during on-site wastewater treatment observed no consistent relationship with values for hydrophilic chemicals (log Kow < 4) , but higher removal efficiency (about 90 percent)
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From page 47... ...
. These studies demonstrate linkages between use of personal care products in homes, which enter septic systems and then are detectable in groundwater, and their recharge into surface or estuary waters.
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From page 48... ...
Centralized Wastewater Treatment Centralized wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs; or publicly owned treatment works) treat water from sanitary sewers and a portion of the flow in combined sewers.
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From page 49... ...
Aminobenzoic Acid 2% < 1% 2% ~0 Avobenzone 56% < 1% 56% ~0 Cinoxate 4% < 1% 4% ~0 Dioxybenzone 23% < 1% 23% ~0 Ensulizole 2% < 1% 2% ~0 Homosalate 93% 1% 92% < 1% Meradimate 93% 1% 92% ~0 Octinoxate 91% 1% 90% < 1% Octisalate 92% 1% 91% < 1% Octocrylene 94% 1% 93% ~0 Oxybenzone 22% < 1% 21% ~0 Padimate O 91% 1% 90% < 1% Sulisobenzone 2% < 1% 2% ~0 NOTE: EPI SuiteTM has not been updated or validated to predict the fate of particles in WWTPs for 2 organic UV filters (ecamsule and trolamine salicylate) and 2 inorganic UV filters (titanium dioxide and zinc oxide)
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From page 50... ...
. Organic chemical contaminants are often highly concentrated in these sewage solids.
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From page 51... ...
(2020) measured the annual release of select UV filters through effluent from wastewater treatment plants in Australia.
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From page 52... ...
. Biodegradability of UV Filters in Wastewater Treatment Plants In addition to removal onto solids, a key process affecting the ultimate release of organic chemicals from WWTPs to receiving waters is the potential for biodegradation within the WWTP.
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From page 53... ...
The conservative nature of the OECD 301 assay would suggest removal would be at a much higher rate given solids load at a higher rate in wastewater treatment. Interestingly, octisalate, octinoxate, and padimate O are also high log Kow (an indicator of the likelihood to adsorb to solids)
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From page 54... ...
) conditions is an endpoint with low capacity for detection; studies in WWTP above solubility reduces applicability ISO 11734 Aerobic WWTP Headspace CO2 Nonbiodegra- Exposure above seeded with AS = 0% dable solubility limit OECD Guideline 308 Sediment Half-life in Inherently Radiolabel study I sediment = 124 d biodegradable OECD Guideline Surface water Half-life in Inherently Radiolabel, several I – metabolite 309 (Aerobic surface water = biodegradable metabolites detected formation Mineralisation in Surface 11.2-11.9 d Water - Simulation Biodegradation Test)
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From page 55... ...
Preparation: Polyseed OECD Guideline 302 B Aerobic WWTP DOC removal Nonbiodegra- Exposure above (Inherent biodegradability: seeded with AS = 9% dable solubility limit, non Zahn-Wellens/EMPA GLP Test) ECETOC Anaerobic Anaerobic WWTP DOC-IC removal Nonbiodegra- Exposure above Biodegradation (Technical seeded with = 2% dable solubility limit Report No.
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From page 56... ...
OECD Guideline 301 F Aerobic WWTP O2 consumption Ready Exposure above (Ready Biodegradability: seeded with AS = 70% biodegradable solubility limit Manometric Respirometry from lab WWTP Test) Octisalate EU Method C.4-E Aerobic WWTP O2 consumption Ready Studies in WWTP R aerobic (Determination of the seeded with AS = 89% biodegradable above solubility "Ready" Biodegradability reduces applicability - Closed Bottle Test)
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From page 57... ...
Mixed Inoculum solubility reduces Preparation: applicability Polyseed OECD Guideline 301 F Aerobic WWTP DOC removal = Nonbiodegradable Non-GLP (Ready Biodegradability: seeded with 0–10% Manometric Respirometry effluent from lab Test) WWTP OECD Guideline 302 B Aerobic WWTP DOC removal = Ready Zahn-Wallens (Inherent biodegradability: seeded with AS 71% biodegradable includes removal Zahn-Wellens/EMPA from lab WWTP by sorption and Test)
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From page 58... ...
. This table is not applicable to the two inorganic UV filters considered in this report (i.e., titanium dioxide and zinc oxide)
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From page 59... ...
will depend on the mass of the UV filters being used and their propensity for either washing off skin at bathing beaches, passing through publicly owned treatment works, or reaching surface waters via leaching into soils (especially if sewage solids are applied) and subsequent groundwater transport or direct land runoff (after wind and storm events)
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From page 60... ...
have early life stages (e.g., gametes, larvae) that reside in upper surface layers close to the microlayer.
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From page 61... ...
Developing distinct scenarios is useful because the particular characteristics of receptor environmental settings significantly influence the fate and transport processes UV filters are subject to once in aquatic environments, and ultimately their bioavailability and potential toxicity. Briefly, the three following scenarios are intended to contextualize the potential sources of UV filters.
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From page 62... ...
62 IMPLICATIONS OF SUNSCREEN USAGE FOR AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS AND HUMAN HEALTH (a) Large water bodies with open water exchange Urban stormwater Wastewater and combined discharges sewer overflow discharge Septic tank Rinse and cesspool off releases station Recreational release Aquifer Mixing and exchange with adjacent waters Surface/groundwater (b)
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FIGURE 3.10 Examples of coral reef systems -- Hanauma Bay in Hawaii (left) and the barrier reef system in Florida (right)
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From page 64... ...
Many conceptual models can be constructed to convey exposure pathways for ecological receptors in the diverse aquatic and marine systems illustrated in Figure 3.9. One example is given for a coastal aquatic system with an upstream freshwater component (Figure 3.12)
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From page 65... ...
Upon entering aquatic environments, UV filters will partition into various environmental media including air, water, suspended solids, surface microlayers, and sediments. The dissolved phase of a UV filter in water is an important route for direct exposure to membranes such as those used for respiration and nutrition (e.g., gills and other surfaces that permit exchanges of dissolved gasses, nutrients, and other chemicals between the animal and the environment)
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From page 66... ...
. Coral reefs are also of substantial cultural value and importance, particularly in the Pacific Islands (e.g., Gregg et al., 2015)
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From page 67... ...
Finding: Through engineered processes at most wastewater treatment facilities, homosalate, meradimate, octocrylene, octinoxate, octisalate, and padimate O, as well as the inorganic UV filters titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, are most likely to be highly removed from the effluent. Studies have shown their presence in sewage solids that are collected and disposed of off-site (landfills, land applied, incinerated)
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From page 69... ...
HOW EXPOSURE INFORMATION IS USED IN ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT Ecological risk assessments (ERAs) utilize information on exposure (i.e., concentrations in water or sediment)
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