Oil in the Sea IV Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2022) / Chapter Skim
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4 Accidental Spill Mitigation
4 Accidental Spill Mitigation
Pages 107-160
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From page 107... ...
for optimizing recovery efficiency and maximizing protection for • Oiled wildlife response has evolved into a comprehensive pro people and the environment. gram fully integrated with oil spill response efforts.
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From page 108... ...
mitigation in preventing the effects of large oil spills. If an early warning system indicates a potential loss of well Ensuring that VRPs and SMFF response capabilities are containment, the BOP can be activated to seal the well before appropriate to meet the needs of existing and future vessel oil escapes, either remotely or using a remotely operated untraffic will be an important mitigating factor for large tanker derwater vehicle with the help of a subsea intervention skid.
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From page 109... ...
A relief well is drilled in the same way as a regular These include exercises with drilling crews to test their abilwell and is positioned at an appropriate distance from the ity to detect and mitigate simulated influx of hydrocarbons, a incident wellsite to allow safe drilling operations and avoid requirement for rig supervisors to take a certified well control interference with the source control activities. The distance course every 2 years, conduct safety seminars, and Drill the between surface locations for the blowout well and the relief Well on Paper (DWOP)
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From page 110... ...
This section aims to review various oil spill response tic detection, fiber-optic sensors, pressure point analysis, rate tools that have a potential to reduce the volume and impacts of change / conditional rate of change, dynamic modeling, of the released product and which could be considered for vapor sampling, infrared thermography, digital signal pro- response in marine environments. It is important to note that cessing and mass-volume balance technique, among others no single response technique is absolutely effective, safe, or (DNV, 2016; Adegboye et al., 2019)
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From page 111... ...
maps, ship locations, weather, the original ICS into its Incident Management Handbook and ocean currents, in a centralized format for environmental (IMH) for use on oil spills, chemical releases, and other en responders and natural resource decision makers.
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From page 112... ...
The DIVER tool provides natural dispersing agents, in situ burning, various shoreline cleanup resource trustees and the public with the ability to access, techniques, etc. (NOAA, 2013a; see Sections 4.2.2, 4.2.3, query, visualize, and download vast data on environmental and 4.2.4)
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From page 113... ...
The RRI aims to improve the effectiveness of Oil spill response equipment may be owned by indi- deploying response equipment to an oil spill, and may be vidual companies or by federal, state or local govern- used to develop contingency plans. ments, but the majority of it is held by the oil spill removal organizations (OSROs)
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4.2.1.5 Response Research and Development and the treatment options vary from place to place and time to time as knowledge and technology improve. The field of oil spill response has similarities to the The preferable time for doing oil spill response research medical profession.
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From page 115... ...
Field experiments with real oils submitted for subsea response and about 43,000 ideas for and petroleum products are needed to further advance oil surface oil slick response. It should be noted that this process spill science and optimize oil spill response techniques.
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From page 116... ...
All of • Identify most suitable areas of the slick for me these programs have generated invaluable advances in oil chanical recovery, in situ burning, and surface spill response knowledge and technologies and facilitated dispersants global sharing and deployment of this information. • Monitor effectiveness of response strategies includ ing monitored natural attenuation 4.2.2 Monitoring and Assessment • Resources at Risk Observations: • Monitor and document presence and absence of Over the past two decades, significant advances in sens wildlife in the area ing instrumentation have occurred.
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From page 117... ...
ranges, and laser-induced As there are multiple substances that can cause this dampenfluorosensors. The API Planning Guidance for Remote Sens- ing effect, these images must be verified to confirm presence ing in Support of Oil Spill Response (2013)
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From page 118... ...
Aerostat or Balloon Vessel Usually tethered to an oil spill response vessel (OSRV) , Some of the X-band marine navigation radars used on an aerostat or a balloon may carry passive remote sensors the vessels can be reconfigured and accompanied with data similar to those on an aircraft, including optical and thermal processing software to map a slick in proximity to the vessel.
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Most often potential oil slicks are detected through multi-spectral satellites (MODIS and MERIS [Medium the analysis of multispectral satellite imagery and synthetic Resolution Imaging Spectrometer]
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. Novel remote sensing methods have board NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites, was used after the the potential to be used for oil spill responses by providing DWH spill for tracking the oil slick (which appears grayish fast information to emergency responders.
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Good Practice Guide for in-water surveillance of oil spills Aromatic hydrocarbons, which are highly fluorescent, at sea (IPIECA, 2016) , describe tools and processes used to are often a major constituent of typical crude oils; therefore, monitor oil spill fate and behavior in the water column (see fluorescence techniques can be used to detect oil.
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From page 122... ...
of sizes and are built for a multitude of purposes. In oil Propeller-driven systems rely on battery power for most of spill response, ROVs may be used downstream of the spill their propulsion.
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Some of the detection techniques include diver observations, ob 4.2.2.4 Special Monitoring of Applied Response servations with the camera from underwater vehicles, sonar Technologies systems, acoustic camera, towed and stationary sorbents, bottom samplers, laser fluorosensors, and water column Since the early 1980s, the response community recognized sampling. Recent experiments have also evaluated the use a need for procedures to monitor response technologies used of marine-induced polarization for oil detection in the water during oil spills.
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From page 124... ...
is a syslets in very dynamic ocean conditions presents a number tematic method for surveying an affected shoreline after an of challenges. First, the access of monitoring vessels to the oil spill to document shoreline oiling and monitor effectivelocation of aerial dispersant application may be limited by ness of response techniques.
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From page 125... ...
, field roles, which increase the speed and efficiency of SCAT and ideally continuing in advance of operational cleanup. surveys, improve the level of confidence in oil detection and Throughout the response surveys continue to verify shore- delineation and provide more timely information for the line oiling and cleanup effectiveness, and eventually, to planning and direction of response efforts.
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From page 126... ...
. The tank ship was inbound with approximately participation from the affected states plus federal and responsible party 13 million gallons of Bachaquero Venezuelan crude oil.
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From page 127... ...
undertaken. A spill of a light product that reaches a remote rocky Natural attenuation processes are typically more ef- shoreline with an energetic wave environment is not expected fective in transforming oil at the water surface and in to persist and will degrade naturally as wave exposure inthe water column rather than on the shoreline or in sedi- creases both physical removal and weathering processes.
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From page 128... ...
beyond natural attenuations and monitoring, the responsible Rapid deployment of equipment and personnel is critical party will be required to activate its spill response plans and for the success of mechanical recovery. Oil recovery at sea mobilize OSROs.
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Gulf of Mexico, mechanical recovery removed only 3% Because mechanical recovery efficiency is determined by of the spilled volume, despite an unprecedented number the encounter rate of oil by a skimming system and the ability of personnel, recovery equipment, and vessels involved in to recover it with minimal volumes of free water, recent techthe response (The Federal Interagency Solutions Group, nological improvements have focused on new boom designs
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From page 130... ...
vessels Attention should also be paid to prevent their sinking in have high maneuverability in ice and are very valuable for the water or redistribution in the environment. Collection, Arctic oil spill response and supporting logistics.
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Removal efficiency of in situ burning of crude mechanical recovery methods could be informed by a oils has been reported as high as 98%; this means that up to "cradle to grave" analysis evaluating potential additional 98% of collected oil can be eliminated through combustion, environmental impacts and human exposure associated not that 98% percent of a total spilled volume will be burned. with recovery itself, the presence of a potentially large The critical factor for successful burning operations is oil number of vessels and associated air and noise impacts; im- slick thickness.
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From page 132... ...
. These experiments proved that herders In fact, more than 40 years of research have shown that in can effectively contract and contain oil slicks in temperate situ burning is even more effective under cold Arctic condiopen water as well as brash and slush ice concentrations of tions than it is in temperate climates (Buist et al., 2013a,b)
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From page 133... ...
. Numerous studies evaluated composition and concentra In relatively open water with up to 10% drift ice concen- tions of emissions and residues produced as a result of in trations, standard containment tactics using fire-resistant situ burning, as summarized in Sholz et al.
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From page 134... ...
Several projects residue. A few of these HMW PAHs are known or suspected attempted to address this issue by introducing new devices carcinogens and thus are monitored by chemical measure- aimed at improving efficiency of combustion and reducing ment of particulate matter around in situ burning operations.
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From page 135... ...
Surface Dispersants Dispersing an oil slick into water as droplets creates greater The rapidly changing offshore environment require ac- surface area at the oil-water interface, thus increasing availcess to all appropriate response options to ensure maximum ability for natural biodegradation (NASEM, 2020; Pequin response effectiveness and environmental protection for an et al., 2022) (see Section 5.2.8.3)
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From page 136... ...
SOURCE: Image provided courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute, produced by Iron Octopus Productions, Inc. The first application of dispersant-like chemicals in an oil further research and development are needed to optimize spill response took place in 1967 during the Torrey Canyon these concepts and formulations for various spill scenarios oil spill in the United Kingdom (see Section 6.5.3.3)
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From page 137... ...
The use of dispersants can While the dispersants efficiency measurements from disrupt or prevent formation of stable water-in-oil emulsions actual spill responses are limited, measurements obtained and, in some cases, even undo already formed emulsions. from the field scale tests and experiments in large test tanks The time window during which surface dispersants are ef- report high effectiveness of dispersant applications (Belore fective can be as short as one to three days, after which the et al., 2008, 2009; Ross, 2011; NASEM, 2020)
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. Ohmsett is a very dispersants for the purpose of regulatory approvals typi- large outdoor test tank that can generate turbulence comcally report dispersion efficiency in the range of 40–60% parable to that in marine environments.
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From page 139... ...
. An extensive federal and state monitoring program dilute in the top portion of the water column and be car- initiated after the DWH oil spill to address public concerns ried away and dissipated by the currents.
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, although contradictory results the water surface versus emissions from the limited duration are still reported from laboratory studies (e.g., Kleindienst that a treated slick is present on the surface before it disperses et al., 2015; Langenhoff et al., 2020) ; diverging results are into water column will provide valuable information for this likely due to differences in experimental design (NASEM, comparison.
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From page 141... ...
Higher dissolution of light hydrocarbons in the waexample, a blowout of a condensate may naturally disperse ter resulted in a 2,000-fold decrease in emissions of benzene in the water column as well as disperse and evaporate once it at the surface, which lowered health risks for source control reaches the water surface, not requiring additional interven- workers. Section 5.3.3.5 includes a more detailed discussion tion.
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From page 142... ...
specialized injection and monitoring equipment. In a high flow rate oil and gas blowout, a portion of released oil may Operational SSDI monitoring is organized in three phases naturally disperse and dissolve in the water column.
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From page 143... ...
Table 4.2 sum rates, and total amount of dispersant needed. marizes benefits, challenges, and potential additional impacts • Water Column Sampling -- In situ water column sam- for different on-water response techniques.
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From page 144... ...
• Recovery of oil in ice is challenging • Oil that was not collected and recovered • Good availability of equipment and expertise • Challenges with resource mobilization to remote will continue to drift into clean areas and • Recovered product may be reprocessed offshore location before oil spreads too thin can potentially reach shorelines or sensitive • Only limited oil volume can be concentrated by environments booms and made available for recovery • Impacts associated with transport, storage, • Slow collection and recovery process and disposal of recovered oil and water, • Very labor and equipment intensive especially in remote and limited infrastructure • Large volumes of free water are often recovered regions together with oil • Exposes responders to hydrocarbons and risks • Requires storage for the recovered product involving personnel safety • Challenges with transport and disposal of recov- • Impacts to seagrass, corals, and sensitive ered product in remote regions benthic environments during nearshore or • Operations are often limited to daylight shallow water response In Situ Burning • Can quickly remove up to 98% of oil that was • Requires specialized equipment and expertise for • Localized and temporary decrease in air collected within booms or by herders application and monitoring quality • Reduction of hazardous/flammable vapors • Requires regulatory approvals and may generate • High temperature impacts in the water col• Lower logistics and equipment requirements public concerns umn are minimal and only in already affected than mechanical recovery • Typically conducted offshore away from popu- area/volume • Storage and waste disposal are typically mini- lated areas • Residue may adversely affect sensitive mal or not required • Requires collection of oil by booms or herders, benthic environments and thus have to be • Minimal additional environmental impact in which is not effective in high seas or on spread- recovered in some cases most cases out thin slicks • Oil that was not collected and burned will • Effective at low temperatures and for oil in ice • Only limited oil volume can be concentrated by continue to drift into clean areas and may • Ignition of the well could eliminate large vol- booms. Slow collection process reach sensitive habitats umes of oil and gas directly at the source • Works better on fresh oil.
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• Keeps hydrocarbons away from sunlight that may increase their overall toxicity and impacts • The only response option suitable for any weather and 24/7 operations • Requires reduced dispersant-to-oil ratio com pared to surface spraying operations • High degree of control over dispersant applica tion process • Sufficient water volume available for dilution • Reallocates oil to areas with smaller biological density than at the water surface or at near shore/shoreline areas interests. Spill responders and oil spill scientists recognize deciding where and when to place booms.
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From page 146... ...
146 OIL IN THE SEA IV TABLE 4.3 Applicability and Likely Effectiveness of Sunken Oil Recovery Techniques Red = not likely effective; yellow = may be effective; green = most likely effective Agitation/Refloat Sorbents/V-SORS Manual Removal Manual Removal Trawls and Nets Suction Dredge Environmental Shallow Water Diver Vacuum Grab Dredge Diver Pump Excavator Clamshell by Divers Water Depth (ft) -- <5ft -- 5 to 40 ft -- 40 to 80 ft -- >80 ft Water Visibility -- >5 ft -- <5 ft Water Current -- <1 kt -- 1 to 2 kt -- >2 kt Water Height (ft)
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From page 147... ...
Spill response equipment and Protection Guide for Sand Beaches (API, 2013) describes ad- even response personnel can create secondary -- sometimes ditional tactics such as dams, dikes, and barriers that could be greater -- impacts than would have been seen had the intruimplemented to protect and reduce the spread of oil on sandy sion not occurred.
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From page 148... ...
that are used to loosen heavily coated or stubborn oils on surfaces; the oils can then be more easily removed by wiping Burning of Oil in Marshes with sorbents or water washing techniques that move the oil into another location for removal by other methods. SWAs In situ burning of oil in marshes involves the controlled used in marine oil spill response fall into two categories: incineration of an oil product that has affected a salt or "lift and float" and "lift and disperse." As with all chemi- brackish marsh (Fingas, 2018)
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From page 149... ...
• Oxygen and nutrient addition are typically more effective and accepted than bacterial seeding Surfwashing • Removes oil from contaminated sand and • Requires mobilization of light, medium, or • Additional environmental impacts to substrate gravel by relocating the material into nearby heavy equipment to remote locations and flora should be expected due to damage from waters, utilizing the natural wave and water equipment mobilization and use flow to help dislodge and naturally remove the • Potential of disturbance of local fauna from noise contamination and activity • Allows for large area of contaminated shoreline • Process moves oil to new locations and can to be remediated potentially bring previously non-exposed • No additional waste is generated organisms into contact with the oil • Potential disruption of subterranean fauna • Potential for removal of valuable non-contam inated substrate and material by inexperienced responders Manual Removal • Can be an effective, surgical removal option • Very labor-intensive and time-consuming • Can inflict secondary impacts to flora and fauna with minimal secondary impacts when only the • May require responders to be in remote areas, • Risks removal of valuable non-contaminated sub contamination is removed in close contact with potentially hazardous strate and material by inexperienced responders • Generates a low volume of waste material materials, causing concerns about human health • Can generate additional waste requiring storage, and safety transportation, and disposal continued
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. 30 oil spills, three field experiments, and three laboratory studies concerning in situ burning conducted in marshes.
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From page 151... ...
Under for marine oil spills, for several reasons. First, introduc- some circumstances, monitored natural attenuation may be ing exogenous microbial cultures into a natural environment the most appropriate response method, especially consideris not permitted in some jurisdictions.
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From page 152... ...
There are several methods for implementing NEBA prin In fact, many small spills or responses, where only one ciples in a formal assessment of response options (NASEM, response method can be used (e.g., mechanical recovery)
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Similar to CERA, SIMA identifies comNEBA using comparative risk methodology to evaluate re- partments within the potentially affected environment and gional oil spill response options in a planning environment. assesses the impacts with and without response measures.
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From page 154... ...
individual nonprofit organizations with minimal external support to a fully integrated part of the overall spill response effort performed in a professional and coordinated manner. Summary In the United States, this progress has corresponded to that During oil spill preparedness, planning, and response, the seen after the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, with a more response community and stakeholders use NEBA, CERA, ordered and measured response effort as dictated by OPA SIMA, CRA, and other techniques to develop a response 90 performed under a structured ICS (see Figure 4.17)
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From page 155... ...
and information necessary; Secondary oil spill response tactics include efforts to • Support efforts in spreading information to the media, "keep wildlife away from oil." These actions fall into two public, and other interested parties; and main categories: deterrence (or hazing) and pre-emptive • Provide the best possible care to affected and/or threat- capture of wildlife.
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From page 156... ...
• Intake: On arrival at the facility, a standardized • Capture: During spill events, government agency per- intake protocol should be followed, to ensure legal sonnel or trained and experienced wildlife responders evidence is obtained and documented for possible from rehabilitation groups capture most oiled wildlife NRDA injury determination. Each oiled animal should FIGURE 4.18 Tertiary oiled wildlife response options and activities.
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From page 157... ...
Oil Spill Response Joint Industry Project should be provided nutritional and hydration sup- (OSR-JIP) recognized oiled wildlife response involving port (e.g., birds gavage-fed high-calorie nutritional specialist personnel as one of the 15 key capabilities nec slurries alternating with rehydrating solutions up to essary for effective preparedness and response.
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From page 158... ...
If required, the variability among post-release survival studies in the lit- NEBA tools and processes (CERA, SIMA, and CRA) are erature, dependent on species differences, characteristics of available to compare oil spill response options and select the spill including product spilled and speed of response, or an optimal combination of activities that could result in specifics of rehabilitation methods (summarized in Henkel maximum protection of environmental, socioeconomic, and and Ziccardi, 2018)
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From page 159... ...
More specifically, the research included in to date differ chemically from traditional marine fuel oils Table 4.5 would benefit future oil spill response efforts. TABLE 4.5 Research Recommended to Advance Oil Spill Response and Minimize Effects 4.1 New Fuel Types and Oilfield Production Products: The effectiveness of various response techniques and their windows of opportunity in responding to hybrid fuel oil, particularly low sulfur fuel oils, and to diluted bitumen ("dilbit")
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