Oil in the Sea IV Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2022) / Chapter Skim
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6 Effects of Oil in the Sea
6 Effects of Oil in the Sea
Pages 263-360
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From page 263... ...
Key advances include: • Examination of the potential effects of oil spills on human health, including mental and behavioral effects, and considerations of • Complexity of determining or predicting the effects of petroleum socioeconomic impacts and community resilience. hydrocarbons in the marine environment within a changing • Identification of important information gaps that exist in our ecosystem and multiple co-stressors, using field, laboratory, or understanding of the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons (and predictive modeling based approaches.
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. toxicity, and effects at the community level or long-term Further research is required to assess the relevance of traneffects after major oil spills confirms our incomplete knowl- scriptomic changes to adverse outcomes in individuals and edge of how oil can harm ecosystems, while spills of national their relation to population-level consequences, especially significance (SONS)
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and population-level consequences. ‘Omics technologies were Exxon Valdez oil spill, cytochrome P4501A expression was elevated used extensively during and following the DWH incident (especially in the absence population level declines in the fish species studied microbial genomics)
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. Nonetheless, across all of these regions, it is the Our understanding of the biological effects of petroleum sea surface and shoreline habitats that are most vulnerreleased into the marine environment is informed by experi- able to the adverse effects of oil spills and chronic oil mental laboratory and field studies, theoretical considerations, discharges.
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indicates the relative exposure risk: red, or physical contact, representing the highest exposure risk to the ecosystem and green, or absorption, representing lower exposure risk to the marine ecosystem. The size of the organism group icon in each diagram reflects the relative sensitivity of that organism group when exposed to oil through the exposure mechanism indicated.
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Traditionally, laboratory toxicity tests have been protect human life, health, and property, and second to mini- used to try to mimic or replicate field conditions during a mize ecological harm. No oil spill response option is without spill, which is not feasible; however, they have been useful in ecological consequences, and these consequences must be establishing toxicity thresholds for a number of diverse taxa considered as effects of oil spills or contamination as well.
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. Oil oil weathers, and possibly associates with inorganic sediments loadings of benthic sediments following the DWH oil spill or organic matter in the upper water column, oil may sink to provide an extreme example, with maximum loadings of the benthos, contaminating coral reefs, epibenthic organisms, ~15 mg oil/g sediment in the uppermost 1–2 cm of benthic and eventually perhaps benthic infauna.
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. Inhalation is an important potential exposure pathway Field studies have shown that sea turtles may consume for humans too, especially oil spill response personnel and oil-contaminated food (Hall et al., 1983; Camacho et al., industry personnel working near accidental oil discharges.
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to provide both measurements of dissolved PACs in surface waters contami- lift and thrust. The physical presence of oil on these feathers nated by oil slicks following major oil spills.
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. the DWH oil spill, externally dosed birds were found to lose Petroleum products, depending on their constituent fractions, heat but able to maintain core body temperature (as opposed weathering, and other physical properties, can have a number to orally dosed birds, which had difficulty maintaining inter- of physical effects on tissues, causing both acute and chronic nal temperature; Cunningham et al., 2017)
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for symbiotic organisms like corals but also in an organism's Widespread mortality of mangrove forests following two microbiome (e.g., epithelial and GI tracts) , alterations in which large oil spills in Panama was attributed to asphyxiation and can have ramifications for the immune, metabolic, and other possibly to other toxic effects (Duke et al., 1997)
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ditionally, the hemolytic anemia produced by oil exposure As discussed in the preceding gastrointestinal section, recent (see Section 6.3.2.9) can cause an accumulation of iron in new knowledge has evolved regarding the importance of an the Kupffer cells of the liver, leading to hemosiderosis or organism's microbiome, with studies highlighting secondary hemochromatosis that, if severe enough, can decrease the consequences to the immune (and other)
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on the hypothal- Nearly all of the toxicological effects of inhaled hydrocaramus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (Fairbrother et al., 2004; bons on seabirds, marine mammals, and sea turtles are inferred Mohr et al., 2010; Schwacke et al., 2013)
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. This heightened risk of pulmonary effects (and ad Similarly, following the DWH oil spill, a number of stud- renal compromise via subsequent transfer to the blood)
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. birds during oil spills have regularly been reported to have Much of the wide variability in apparent sensitivity among respiratory distress in captivity (Mazet et al., 2002)
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, a PAC-detoxifying enzyme Differences in the survival of pink salmon embryos in that oxidizes PACs to more water-soluble and excretable oiled compared with unoiled spawning habitat following the products, along with genetic transcriptional effects wherein 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill prompted laboratory studies con- up- or down-regulate genes associated with cardiac developfirming toxicity from exposure to water that had contacted ment or function, leading to impaired cardiac development oil (reviewed by Rice et al., 2001)
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, which A common mechanism of PAC action involves aryl hydrocarbon forms the basis of why early life stages of fish are affected by three-ring receptor (AhR) binding, although in accordance with traditional beliefs PACs (see Figure 6.5)
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when the energy differences are similar, converting the triplet The <1 μg/L concentrations of three-ring PACs that can oxygen into higher-energy singlet oxygen. This exchange inflict substantial damage to developing fish embryos im- returns the PAC to its lower-energy singlet state, and the plies that these effects may be widespread after oil spills, or higher-energy singlet oxygen is extremely reactive with in association with chronic discharges such as stormwater singlet organic molecules, allowing this process to repeat inrunoff to marine receiving waters (e.g., McIntyre et al., definitely as long as (singlet)
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(B) Tricyclic PACs from crude oil directly block the efflux of K+ ions through I Kr, and disrupt SR calcium handling so that the SR Ca2+ stores are depleted and phenanthrene also blocks the LTCC (large solid inhibitory symbols)
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. Consequently, small organisms with translucent and will avoid oil (Rice, 1973, 1977; Meinard and Weber, bodies that inhabit the upper water column or intertidal 1981; Martin, 2017; Claireaux et al., 2018)
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framework to aims to highlight some of the key points regarding the use, estimate the toxicity of single or mixtures of hydrocarbon approaches and interpretation of laboratory toxicity tests constituents, oil and/or chemicals used in oil spill response since Oil in the Sea III. Dispersed oil and dispersant stud(e.g., dispersants, herders)
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Numerous requests for further standardization of exposure when using chemical dispersants to result in oil dispersal test media preparation and toxicity test protocols have been and droplet formation) and the recommended oil to dispermade in various publications, including National Academies sant ratio when using chemical dispersants (Singer et al., reports and other papers (Aurand and Coelho, 2005; NRC, 2000)
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and include the following (* highlights those detailed in original tion of the toxicity results generated and comparison across studies Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Research Forum protocols)
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The use of nominal concentrations/loadings is not an accept propriately characterize the exposure media, which was also a focus in able metric; these numbers have very limited utility in understanding the the original Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Research Forum toxicity of the oil and prevent comparison to previous studies and/or any protocols. Given advances in analytical capabilities and understanding of interpretation regarding field exposures (Mitchelmore et al., 2020a)
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This has led to a number of studies conclud Toxicity is dependent on the specific composition and concentration ing that chemically dispersed oil is more toxic than physically dispersed of the oil constituents but also on form (i.e., dissolved versus particu- oil. However, for most species/studies, chemical dispersants are not late fraction)
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An solutions are renewed over the time course of the experi organism's exposure will depend on the test type used ment. Detail how the analytical verification of exposure given the dynamic nature of oil exposure media over time.
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Preliminary range-finding Conduct a preliminary range-finding test using log doses A preliminary test is recommended so that the concenversus definitive toxicity tests over a wide range of concentrations. This will establish trations used in a definitive test bracket the toxicity test the approximate concentration range for effects.
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for toxicity testing.
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. Even without these new insights into the and Field Applicability of Laboratory Toxicity Tests importance of specific chemical composition, CROSERF methods significantly improved the ability to compare across As summarized in Figure 6.14, a variety of studies are studies -- although nominal exposures or inappropriate ana- used to study the impacts of oil on marine organisms, and lytical verification continue to be used and can result in both all vary in their complexity, ability to control variables, and under- and over- estimations of toxicity (see Figure 6.12)
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• Photoactivation/photomodification/UV issues FIGURE 6.13 Summary of changing procedures, new developments, and considerations for inclusion since publication of the CROSERF protocols for standardizing oil toxicity testing. SOURCE: Modified and expanded from Mitchelmore et al.
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Environmental Protection to oil spills will promulgate response plans, guidelines, and practices Agency priority pollutant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is based on their interpretations of up-to-date knowledge and technol rarely appropriate for oil pollution studies; ogy. They are also informed through the input by and comments from 4.
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. Often the most serious effects of oil spills and discharges More generally, NRDA studies provide most of the factual are obvious, such as widespread mortalities of heavily oiled basis for quantifying the environmental damage caused by seabirds, marine mammals, or sea turtles.
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Section 6.5.1) , in the hope that this will be useful for those These stressors included natural deepwater oil and gas seeps, faced for the first time with responding to future oil spills or a heavily industrialized oil and gas production and transport evaluating their consequences.
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Data for marsh sediment hydrocarbons provided a historical Baseline, and especially the term benchmark that was context, a measure of peak oil exposure, the peak sediment used at one time in the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) pro- concentrations when DWH oil residue reached the marsh grams, invoke interpretations involving a static situation.
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Seabirds are frequently the most vulnerfield conditions that lead to an observed decline in densi- able, as attested by the photographs of oiled birds that often ties or change in the composition of the nekton community accompany media reports of even small oil spills. Other (Fodrie et al., 2014)
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Ecological recovery nities can be and how challenging answering the question of recovery is. following major perturbations such as large oil spills occurs within the Photographic documentation of Mearns Rock, a boulder (see context of natural variability, often highly dynamic, in affected popula Figure 6.16)
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In reality, some oil typically lingers on decadal and-bust" episodes for rockweed during the past 30 years, and three for time scales after major oil spills, and the differences between the mussels. These time-series photographs involved volunteer scientists and state of an ecosystem following a spill are usually difficult -- if not citizens and provide visual records of change, easily understood by the impossible -- to distinguish from what the state would have been had public and decision makers alike.
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. NRDA studies following the DWH oil spill found to be leaking sporadically over the years and to have estimated that up to 7,600 large juvenile/adult sea turtles and killed 51,569 birds and 8 sea otters between 1990 and 2003 166,000 small juvenile sea turtles were killed (see Box 6.7)
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. number of turtles likely to have encountered some level of heavy oil Estimating injury to sea turtles following oil spills faces many chal- exposure, and to refine estimates of mortality of surface-pelagic turtles lenges, including the impossible task of surveying all affected areas in in the region (DWH Trustees, 2016b; McDonald et al., 2017)
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. FIGURE 6.19 Modeled likelihoods of heavy oil exposure across the DWH oil spill area and period.
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. Study of the long-term fate of the oil, and elucidaaccidental marine oil spills in volume and also well funded tion of continuing effects, was undertaken 30 years after the for research: the Exxon Valdez tanker grounding in Prince spill.
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The general marine environment, benthic biology/ecology, and marsh biology/ecology depth distribution in the marsh sediment and the composition of to understand the fate and effects of spilled oil in the marine environment. oil compounds remaining in the sediment, including the chemical The initial studies continued over a 3- to 5-year period and have been composition of the PAH, had not changed significantly since 1989.
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with demonstrable die-off following oiling from the DWH oil spill. SOURCE: Photos from Coastal Waters Consortium, Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative.
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They docu- oiled sites, began to erode because of exposure to wave action. mented minimal change in percent coverage of photosynthetic Moreover, the erosion rates attributed to DWH oil averaged vegetation (an increase of 2.6% from 2010)
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to DWH oil were diminished by 50% at oiled sites in 2010, Following oil deposition on the marsh surface, the proportion but by 2011 had largely recovered. Additionally, subguilds of Uca spinicarpa surpassed that of Uca longisignalis because of predators, sucking herbivores, stem-boring herbivores, of increase in largely unvegetated areas with a residual oil crust parasitoids, and detritivores all appeared to be suppressed at over the sediment surface (Deis et al., 2017)
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. As expected, early in the arrival of DWH oil to salt that overall (2012–2017)
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. Population responses did consistent results showed little indication of any effect from not reflect the immediate demise of heavily oiled killifish bepotential DWH oil exposure (Fodrie and Heck, 2011; Fodrie cause of many of the characteristics described in Figure 6.24 FIGURE 6.24 Potential pathways for the opposing results of organismal (genomic, physiological, developmental)
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(1981) summarized the effects of oil spills • Cold environments (e.g., Metula, Arrow, Amoco at five sites in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
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. pores for gas exchange, which if coated with oil lose the In oil spills with massive and thick oil coverage on the ability for gas exchange.
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, (d) root exposed to salt water, crude oil (1 ml/150 ml)
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Observations 1 year local impacts (such as oil spills) from global climate-driven after the spill showed that oiled mangroves were recovering change (Hawkins et al., 2017)
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There were baseline data for the area, which had been oil spills affecting seagrass beds demonstrate more negative monitored since 2008 for benthic communities and microbial effects, depending on the intertidal environment and relative processes (Lee and Lin, 2013)
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there are the shallow coral reefs that are restricted to tropisynthesized the peer-reviewed literature and reported on the cal, warm, clear waters, but also deep or cold-water corals impacts of oil spills on sand beaches (63-μm to 1-mm grain in temperate to Arctic locations. In tropical shallow-water
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This section discusses the implications of oil spills to often reside in the ocean's surface where oil concentrations both shallow-water and deep-sea coral reefs, highlighting are typically higher. The effects may also be compounded studies that were not discussed or occurred after the Oil in by environmental factors and co-stressors such as ultra- the Sea III report (NRC, 2003)
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, and Laboratory exposure studies have highlighted specific other potentially confounding environmental variables. For mechanisms of action of oil constituents and/or chemical example, chronic crude oil pollution in the Red Sea increased dispersants and assessed exposure routes, toxicity threshmortality and reduced coral reproduction, but a short-term olds, and species sensitivities in a number of species and exposure of dispersed oil showed little residual effect on multiple life stages from adult, juvenile, and larval stages.
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. The inhibition of metamorphosis in Acropora tenuis larvae Species-sensitivity distributions for five Atlantic scler- exposed to low concentrations of crude oil WAF (103 μg/L actinian coral species' exposure to 1-methylnaphthalene TPAH; suggested to be similar to levels that would be found demonstrated that, similar to the Bak (1987)
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NOTE: Oil toxicity can be affected by environmental co-factors (purple boxes) through direct co-exposure, and resulting interactions, or by affecting oil weathering, dissolution and reaction rates prior to or during uptake into target tissues.
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the tropical shallow-water Porites spp., this was attributed During the DWH oil spill, deep sea coral ecosystems were to differences in the biological endpoints each study used, as exposed to oil plumes, dispersed oil, and dispersant, and were observations of narcotic effects were in agreement between also affected by sinking of oil-contaminated marine snow (Ca- the two studies (Renegar et al., 2017b; Bytingsvik et al., milli et al., 2010; Passow et al., 2017)
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Effects of Oil in the Sea 321 FIGURE 6.29 Examples of healthy (left) and injured colonies (right)
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in situ experiment was conducted to provide information for oil spill Overall, this experimental study demonstrated -- and still continues preparedness and response, especially with respect to tradeoff decisions to show -- the significantly different damage and recovery regimes in for the use of chemical dispersants in nearshore tropical intertidal and coral reefs, seagrass, and mangrove ecosystems depending on whether subtidal marine ecosystems. It is now one of the most comprehensive they were exposed to crude oil or dispersant-treated crude oil, thus experiments examining long-term impacts of oil and dispersed oil in highlighting some of the tradeoffs that are considered in NEBA analyses tropical nearshore ecosystems and is foundational to the concept of in these locations.
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. The nematode:harpacticoid copepod ratio for to the water column.
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assessment indicators for impacts of and recovery from oil spills. There was one sample in 76-m water depth designated 6.5.5.2 Deep-Sea Soft Sediments as "moderately affected" by the DWH oil spill among all Meiofauna (size > 63 but < 300 μm)
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Furthermore, natu- The effects of oil spills are obvious as surface-water oil ral seeps have limited benthic footprint of impact because slicks impinge on shorelines or as larger organisms such as most of the seep oil is weathered and rises to the ocean sur- marine mammals, sea turtles, diving ducks, and piscivorous face in droplets when it releases from the sea floor (Sassen birds encounter the oil at the sea surface. The oil in the water et al., 1999; MacDonald et al., 2002)
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These data lead to the fact nity composition, abundance, and biomass over time within that BOMAs are intrinsic features in the biological response an area that experiences an oil spill is complicated by lack to oil spills. They are also possibly important hot spots for of a suitable reference area, unknown exposure level and hydrocarbon oxidation in the water column.
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For comparison of phytoplankton communities potentially affected by the DWH oil spill, there were increases 6.5.6.4 Kelp Beds and decreases in the abundances of phytoplankton east and west of the Mississippi River delta (Quigg et al., 2021b)
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. Photoenhanced toxicity effects in the sea water of alkyl-phenols, some of which are estrogen-mimic endocolumn were also not reported after the DWH oil spill, but crine disruptors (Boitsov et al., 2007; Meier et al., 2007)
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following surface oil spills that generate wideabsorbed by those organisms, and the transfer of those hy- spread dispersions of oil microdroplets into the water column drocarbons from prey to their predators is also clear. These near the sea surface.
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rized here in recognition that appropriate appreciation for the weight of this evidence provides guidance for more careful evaluation of similar effects following future oil spills or 6.5.7.3 Indirect Effects and Trophic Cascades other perturbations of marine ecosystems. Substantial evi Community responses to strong environmental pertur- dence suggests that the extensive mortalities of piscivorous bations provide invaluable insights regarding ecological seabirds following the DWH oil spill (Haney et al., 2014a,b)
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. However, there was no indication that DWH oil related to the DWH oil spill and recommended several avresidues influenced the seasonal occurrence of bottom-water enues of research that would more fully address this issue hypoxia in 2010.
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These conditions also make response efforts to accidental oil discharges, as well as efforts to study the Arctic marine ecosystem and evaluate environmental damage from spills and other oil discharges, considerably more difficult than in more temperate waters. Consequently, marine ecosystem structure and functioning in the Arctic remain poorly understood, and the functioning of these ecosystems is changing rapidly in response to accelerating warming of the Arctic Ocean.
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Oil trajectory models seabirds. In the water column, acute toxicity tests indicate provide information regarding where the oil may go, providthat aquatic organisms inhabiting Arctic waters are about as ing estimates of surface or subsurface oil exposure (Boufadel sensitive as comparable organisms living in more temperate and Geng, 2014; Ji et al., 2020; Keramea et al., 2021; waters, although adverse effects of exposure to oil may take Nordtug and Hansen, 2021)
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. These models have been used to vations of oiled turtles a spatio-temporally explicit model identify and predict the resources of concern for impacts was developed during the NRDA process in the DWH oil although specific impacts are not identified given that chemi- spill to statistically estimate the number of turtles that may cal toxicity depends on the concentration, specific type, and have been exposed to oil (Wallace et al., 2017)
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These models, which use laboratory toxicity data, perate standard test species, both TLM and experimental were developed to predict the impact of oil constituents on approaches were recently compared to assess the protection standard or non-standard species (e.g., Interspecies Correla- for tropical species exposed to gas condensate oils (Negri tion Estimation or ICE models) or to estimate concentrations et al., 2021)
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(2017) demonstrating the utility of the TLM-TU selected available dispersant and chemically dispersed oil model in PETROTOX to reproduce observed chronic toxicity toxicity data (Bejarano et al., 2013)
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and differ- and compare the toxicity of different oils, oil preparaent oil types. For example, SSDs were similar irrespective tion types, and species and can also be informative for of use of LC or EC50 data and showed that polar species response decisions regarding the use of dispersants.
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In its constituents, and chemical dispersants and that research CAFE SSDs summarize the aquatic toxicity data and provide efforts toward conducting further toxicity tests (especially estimates of the first and fifth percentile HCs. acute and standard test species)
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Examples of the plot of toxicity data organized as species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) within the effects module of the CAFE database.
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. In this report a recommendation was made that toxicity tests should be used, not to attempt to reproduce field exposures, but to develop a 6.7.3 Limitations and Challenges of Modeling Approaches consistent means of using toxicity metrics, such as HC5 and The main weakness in modeling still revolves around LC50 for toxicity models used with fate and transport models gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of oil spills, although to compare the exposure and toxicity of various response the models have been improved and verified using extensive options, including dispersants (NASEM, 2020)
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Valuable information about the human health this. Exposure time is also a critical variable component, as impact of oil spills has also been obtained from recent studtypically toxicity tests follow standard guidelines of typically ies of the Hebei Spirit and Prestige oil spills, which led the 48–96 hours for acute tests, whereas most acute oil spill South Korean and Spanish governments to support ongoexposure scenarios may last only a few hours.
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. much needed longer-term integrated investigations of the Another important federally funded program was the impact of oil spills (NASEM, n.d.)
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They found oil spill response activities, including emissions from the overall low levels of risk, consistent with the findings of many ships involved and the flaring of natural gas. Burn- other investigators who performed risk assessments following of oil at sea contributed to production of NOx as well ing oil spills.
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Similar to marine and shore biota, the major factor deter- release might be anticipated. mining the extent of human exposure to oil in the sea and Furthermore, response to oil spills may reduce the extent its derivatives is location in relation to human habitation of volatilization, as occurs with dispersants, or may lead to and activities.
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Although biological markers of exposure related health impacts. They and others have made multiple are available for crude oil components of particular interest, recommendations to improve individual and community such as PAHs and benzene, most studies of the DWH oil spill resilience (Morris et al., 2013; Buckner et al., 2017; Nicholls began well after those components' expected persistence.
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. sample of this cohort 6 years following the Prestige oil spill Studies have evaluated indicators of genotoxicity in those showed no clear differences between the exposed and control exposed during oil spills.
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(2018, 2019) also do not review whether there was an increase in heart attack rates 6.8.6 Toxicity of Crude Oil Components of in the many previous studies of workers in the petroleum Particular Concern industry or other industries whose THC exposure levels were presumably far higher than those of the DWH response work 6.8.6.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons ers.
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All of the BTEX components, in benzene and to some extent toluene, and the results of a common with most other volatile hydrocarbons, have proper- questionnaire about potential central nervous system or ties similar to anesthetics at high concentrations. Measure- peripheral nervous system self-reported symptoms (e.g., ments of BTEX during the DWH oil spill were variously dizziness, stumbling)
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. Many of these same issues about the utility of a single Dispersants are used to prevent or reduce oil from subsea blood draw to measure a rapidly changing parameter such releases from reaching the surface and forming slicks, or as blood benzene, and potential confounding by indoor to disperse surface slicks already formed to prevent their benzene sources other than smoking and environmental direct contact with birds and marine mammals, including tobacco smoke, are pertinent to the GuLF-related study of humans (e.g., response workers on vessels)
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. oil spills produce mental and behavioral effects unrelated to direct contact of community members with crude oil or its components.
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was found to be particularly associated with shorter-term Before the DWH oil spill, the mental and behavioral increases in mental and behavioral effects; community disimpact of oil spills on community members was usually ruption led to longer-term effects, and the intensity of the determined in one or at most a few studies. The extent of flood was associated with greater effects.
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Even within this group of relatively disasters, such as oil spills, could be helpful. well-paid workers, they found evidence that greater income Economic factors also play a major role in social vulnermitigated mental depression and generalized anxiety dis- ability to environmental disasters.
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NOAA, and other agencies -- but not HHS. The Handbook The many studies following the DWH oil spill amply does provide an overview of EPA's legal authority to conconfirm that a major impact of oil spills affecting shore sider public health.
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Failure extent of seafood and human exposure (Allan et al., 2012; to adhere to worker safety rules arguably was a significant see also more detailed discussion of PAH chemistry, toxicausative factor in the Exxon Valdez oil spill and a contributor cology, and analysis in Section 2.1.3, including Figure 2.8; to the system failure that led to the DWH oil spill. Eleven rig Section 2.1.7.7; and Section 3.3.2)
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If some beaches, waters, and animals tal and behavioral health effects and community disruption were oiled and other, seemingly unoiled animals are caused by major oil spills (see preceding discussion) , much inexplicably dying, are any resources safe to use?
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noted that provided critical information in both the Exxon Valdez and "villagers responded with skepticism and disbelief" and quoted DWH oil spills, though there is still room for improvement. one villager as saying "We saw too much oil, and we didn't want nothing to do with [the fish]
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sources by the discharged oil. Furthermore, new knowledge and/or technologies have been The major economic impact of the DWH oil spill, and developed since the original standard methods were published.
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More specifically, the research included in Table 6.3 other oil spills, oil spills have the potential to indirectly affect would continue to advance this important component of oil human health; studies of the DWH oil spill have confirmed spill science. TABLE 6.3 Research Recommended to Advance Understanding of the Effects of Oil in the Sea on the Marine Environment 6.1 Natural Seeps: As relatively understudied habitats, research is needed to increase our understanding of unique chemosynthetic communities near natural seeps, especially deeper sea locations, to identify novel species/biochemical pathways and chemosynthesis, and to identify bacteria that may be useful in oil spill response (i.e., oil degraders)
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should be further evaluated and included in models. 2. Revisit and update standard procedures for the preparation and characterization of toxicity test media, and the conduct of toxicity tests, including con trol of additional covariables and how they are reported (e.g., updating the chemical response to oil spills: Ecological Research Forum (CROSERF)
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