The Chemistry of Fires at the Wildland-Urban Interface (2022) / Chapter Skim
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From page 120... ...
occurs as disproportionate exposure to occupational hazards and as vulnerable populations disproportionately working at high-risk jobs, such as wildland firefighting, emergency response, and environmental remediation. Finding: Vulnerable populations may exhibit a higher risk of adverse health response and exacerbation of ongoing disease, particularly asthma and pulmonary disorders, as a result of WUI smoke exposure.
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From page 121... ...
However, data on the personal inhalation exposures of wildland firefighters and other emergency response workers in the immediate and near-field zones during WUI fires have yet to be reported. While such data could be extrapolated from that of wildland fires, burning structures could contribute to increased exposure concentrations and smoke components that are mostly absent in purely vegetative wildland fires (Fent et al., 2018; Jaffe et al., 2020)
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The amount inhaled and effective dose of smoke constituents in wildland firefighters are also increased relative to other emergency responders and the public due to the increased breathing (ventilation) rates required during the physically exerting tasks of firefighting (Navarro et al., 2019)
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Research need: There is a need to better understand the composition of gas and particulate exposures in WUI fires, and how they differ from wildland fires. Research need: Assessments of smoke exposure typically rely on outdoor concentrations.
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Similarly, urinary hydroxypyrene concentration was lower among wildland firefighters who reported having more opportunities for skin hygiene (e.g., wash, shower, and change of clothes) while working at the 2016 Horse River Fire (Cherry et al., 2019)
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Consistent with wildland fires in general (Rust et al., 2018) , studies of WUI fires have observed an increased loading of sediments, carbon, nutrients, and metals into surface waters, because of exposed soil and ash, in storm flows following WUI fires (Burke et al., 2013; Burton et al., 2016; Emmerton et al., 2020; Hohner et al., 2016; Stein et al., 2012; USGS, 2012; Writer et al., 2014)
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From page 126... ...
It then explores health implications in near-field firefighters and emergency responders, which could include law enforcement, emergency medical technicians, and paramedics, all of whom may be at higher risk due to proximity. The discussion is divided into acute and chronic health conditions and further divided into epidemiological and toxicological findings related to wildland fires and WUI fires.
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From page 127... ...
. Lung cancer has not yet been identified as a health outcome of wildland fires or WUI fires for smoke-exposed community and regional populations; however, the InternationaI Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, Group 1)
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(2016a,b) , multiple studies have described a decrease in lung function associated with wildland fire smoke exposure among individuals without asthma or bronchial hyperreactivity.
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While the preponderance of evidence suggests an association between cardiovascular disease and wildland fire–generated PM, a conclusive link between wildland fire smoke exposure and adverse cardiovascular effects still remains somewhat elusive. However, a recent review by Chen et al.
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, particularly for those 65+ years. The authors of the study concluded that individuals with underlying cardiovascular disease risk factors may be at greater risk for a cardiovascular or cerebrovascular event during a period of wildland fire smoke exposure.
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Adolescent monkeys demonstrated reduced lung function and long-term immune alterations dependent on sex. The authors concluded that modulation of peripheral blood cytokine synthesis and altered later-in-life lung function was significantly associated with early-life wildland fire smoke exposure (Black et al., 2017)
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Firefighter Acute Exposures and Effects Although ongoing research exists on WUI firefighter acute exposures and health effects, the committee found no published studies specific to WUI fires. A limited amount of information is available on acute exposures and health effects for wildland firefighters, with additional data available on structural firefighters from municipal fire departments.
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Limited information is available on chronic health effects from smoke exposure for wildland firefighters, with additional data available from municipal fire departments. Researchers have linked PAH exposures to a number of cancers, including skin, lung, bladder, and gastrointestinal cancers (Boffetta et al., 1997; Diggs et al., 2011; Rota et al., 2014)
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From page 134... ...
These limitations are underscored by the lack of comprehensive information about fire emissions specific to WUI fires, such as the chemical composition of PM and pollutants that may not be monitored in targeted analyses. Evacuation While no data sets systematically track the occurrence of emergency evacuations or other exposure reduction actions for wildland fires (CCST, 2020)
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Reducing Exposure Risk and Health Effects for Firefighters Potential mitigation interventions for wildland firefighters are grouped into dermal, inhalation, mixed, and administrative categories (Table 6-3)
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They are also working on decontamination protocols for wildland firefighters, focused on dermal post-fire decontamination, and a clean cab protocol for wildland firefighting. Researchers have shown that the use of air-purifying respirators reduces respiratory symptoms in wildland firefighters in Australia (De Vos et al., 2009)
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Dermal/ Keep the indoor space clean and reduce indoor dust by using air cleaners and wiping all surfaces with a static-free Ingestion or damp cloth. If available, use a HEPA vacuum to clean all surfaces including flooring, countertops, shelving, and upholstered furniture.
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EPA (2018) reviewed residential measurement studies that used portable air cleaners and central HVAC system filters to reduce indoor PM2.5 exposures overall, not PM2.5 specific to wildfire smoke.
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. Reducing Other Routes of Exposure While interventions to mitigate dermal exposure to firefighters working at wildland fires have been studied, the committee found no published studies related to mitigation to reduce dermal exposure to contaminants in other outdoor workers, fire recovery (cleanup)
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. These reviews and studies are limited by not clearly differentiating WUI and non-WUI fires, and by having limited information on the accessibility of exposure reduction actions (e.g., portable air cleaners)
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2017b. "Impact of Work Task Related Acute Occupational Smoke Exposures on Select Proinflammatory Immune Parameters in Wildland Firefighters." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 59 (7)
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2017. "Early Life Wildfire Smoke Exposure Is Associated with Immune Dysregulation and Lung Function Decrements in Adolescence." American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology 56 (5)
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2021. "Cardiovascular Health Impacts of Wildfire Smoke Exposure." Particle and Fibre Toxicology 18: 2.
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2021. "Creating Clean Air Spaces During Wildland Fire Smoke Episodes: Web Summit Summary." Frontiers in Public Health.
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2008. "Acute Upper and Lower Respiratory Effects in Wildland Firefighters." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 50 (9)
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2021. "Health Effects of Wildfire Smoke in Children and Public Health Tools: A Narrative Review." Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 31 (1)
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2012. "Followup in Southern California: Decreased Birth Weight Following Prenatal Wildfire Smoke Exposure." Environmental Health Perspectives 120 (9)
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2019. "Wildland Firefighter Smoke Exposure and Risk of Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality." Environmental Research 173: 462–468.
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2004. "Baseline Measurements of Smoke Exposure Among Wildland Firefighters." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 1 (9)
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1991. "Pulmonary Func tion and Respiratory Symptoms in Wildland Firefighters." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 33 (11)
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2018. "Cardiovascular and Cerebro vascular Emergency Department Visits Associated with Wildfire Smoke Exposure in California in 2015." Journal of the American Heart Association 7 (8)
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2021. "Real-Time Laboratory Measurements of VOC Emissions, Removal Rates, and Byproduct Formation from Consumer-Grade Oxidation-Based Air Cleaners." Environmental Science & Technology Letters 8 (12)
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Data and measurements are also needed on various timescales. Retrospective studies of materials, fires, emissions, exposures, and health impacts, both in the field and in laboratories, and via modeling, will be important to improve understanding of the chemistry of WUI fires.
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While this data collection encompasses both wildland fires and WUI fires, mapping tools, described in Chapter 2, can be used to convert comprehensive fire reporting to reporting specific to WUIs, if broadly accepted definitions of WUIs can be developed. Wildfires can also be estimated from satellite detection of fire energetics through thermal anomalies (commonly referred to as hot spots)
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. MEASURING FUELS AND ESTIMATING EMISSIONS Gathering Data on Fuels for WUI Fires The fuel loading and consumption for WUI fires are highly heterogeneous and are currently almost always determined through retrospective analysis (e.g., California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection or National Institute of Standards and Technology post-fire damage assessments)
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From page 156... ...
Additionally, these methods do not estimate the heat release rate, which is a critical factor determining plume rise and atmospheric dispersion. In addition to the retrospective approaches described above, satellite measurements of fire radiative power could detect WUI fires and be included in top-down emission estimates.
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TEMPO will be able to monitor pollutants that may be important for WUI fires like NO2, SO2, HCHO, CHOCHO, and BrO and to measure aerosol optical depth, absorbing aerosol index, and single-scattering albedo, all of which may be useful for detecting WUI fires apart from other wildland fires (Naeger et al., 2021)
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From page 158... ...
Research need: There is a need to develop planned research activities that can be integrated into the Incident Command System before an emergency event to facilitate rapid deployment of the measurement of emissions, residues, and environmental impacts from WUI fires. Because of the limitations of field measurements of emissions from wildland and WUI fires, and because of the wide variety of fire conditions and fuels that may lead to emissions, laboratory investigations of wildland fire emissions, urban fire emissions, and mixed wildland and urban fire emissions play a critical role in understanding the chemistry of these fires.
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Data from state and local measurements may not be available publicly but can often be obtained by request. The national networks often operate on a sampling schedule, limiting their ability to capture transient WUI fire plumes.
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Finding: Some ambient monitoring networks measure an extensive range of hazardous air pollutants that may be useful to identify the environmental impacts of WUI fires; however, these networks have limited spatial and temporal resolution. In addition to the permanent monitoring programs described above, US states and the US Forest Service operate temporary monitoring programs through the Interagency Wildland Fire Air Quality Response Program (USFS, 2021)
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. Although area and personal air monitoring data might represent more accurate exposure information, it is difficult to put resources in place to collect such data for the unplanned, relatively short and episodic air pollution that is caused by WUI fires.
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From page 162... ...
Furthermore, standardized methodology and dermal exposure standards are lacking. Biological Sampling Blood, exhaled breath, and urine have been used for the biomonitoring of structural and wildland firefighters in many recent studies (Adetona et al., 2017; Ekpe et al., 2021; Fent et al., 2014, 2019; Mayer et al., 2021; Shaw et al., 2013)
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From page 163... ...
Research need: There is a need to identify new biomarkers that are more specific for WUI fires and can be used for exposure and toxicity assessment. SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS From fuels and emissions to exposures, measurement approaches and data rely on advanced analytical techniques.
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2017. "Hydroxylated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons as Biomarkers of Exposure to Wood Smoke in Wildland Firefighters." Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 27 (1)
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2020. "Quantifying How Sources of Uncertainty in Combustible Biomass Propa gate to Prediction of Wildland Fire Emissions." International Journal of Wildland Fire 29.
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2021. "Characterization of Occupational Smoke Exposure among Wildland Firefighters in the Midwestern United States." Environmental Research 193.
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