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From page 48... ... . For others, the introduction of carbon into these products is new, namely construction materials in Track 1 such as CO2-cured concrete or carbonated aggregates. Read the entire page →
From page 49... ... The remainder of this chapter describes in more detail the products and processes relevant for CO2 utilization in a net-zero emissions future, in order to inform needs for infrastructure and policies described later in the report. The potential climate impact of net-zero CO2 utilization processes and products is assessed, with a focus on either durable products that can offer long-term storage of CO2 or nondurable products that will represent a large-scale displacement of fossil-based chemicals in a net-zero carbon economy. Read the entire page →
From page 50... ... . The same report also noted that two comprehensive modeling studies of pathways for decarbonization each included >500 MMT of carbon capture and storage (CCS) Read the entire page →
From page 51... ... • M ay be integrated directly onto a flue gas stream. • L ocalized production. Read the entire page →
From page 52... ... 52 CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION MARKETS AND INFRASTRUCTURE TABLE 3-2 Continued Chemical or Material Utilization Process Summary of Infrastructure Aspects by Product Class Polymers, polymer precursors, and other materials Polymers and polymer Chemical and • P roduct is used to produce polymers, or products from polymers such precursors biological as plastics, fibers, and other materials. • C hemical production: ° Centralized, large-scale production, possibly co-located with production of other chemicals and products. Read the entire page →
From page 53... ... Wilcox, 2019, "Utilization of Mineral Carbonation Products: Current State and Potential," Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology 9(6) :1096–1113, https://doi.org/10.1002/ghg.1940. Read the entire page →
From page 54... ... Fundamental Research Bench Scale Proof of Concept Pilot Scale Demonstration Scale Limited Commercial Implementation Broad Implementation BIO-ELECTROCHEMICAL GREEN ALGAE CYANOBACTERIA CHEMO-LITHOTROPHS SYSTEMS FIGURE 3-4 Biologically accessible products from CO2 utilization, including technical maturity. SOURCE: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019, Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization: Status and Research Needs, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, https://doi.org/10.17226/25232. Read the entire page →
From page 55... ... Both chemical and biological processes can produce individual chemicals and mixtures that may be used as fuels, such as C2–C8 hydrocarbons and alcohols. Processes to create synthetic fuels and biofuels from CO2 can serve the potential markets for sustainable fuels for heavy-duty transportation, particularly aviation, and for storage of renewable energy in chemical bonds (socalled Power-to-X) Read the entire page →
From page 56... ... A recent study of CO2 utilization potential that examined carbon black estimated a market value of $14B–$66B in 2050 and a potential for CO2 use of between 40 and 200 MMT (Sick et al. Read the entire page →
From page 57... ... Since then, more developers have entered the field, but the numbers are only now beginning to grow more rapidly. AirMiners and the Circular Carbon Network keep listings of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) Read the entire page →
From page 58... ... SOURCES: Committee generated based on data from National Petroleum Council, 2019, "Meeting the Dual Challenge: A Roadmap to At-Scale Deployment of Carbon Capture, Use, and Storage," https://dualchallenge.npc.org; and International Energy Agency, 2022, Direct Air Capture: A Key Technology for Net Zero, Paris: IEA, https://www.iea.org/reports/direct-aircapture-2022. All rights reserved; as modified by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Read the entire page →
From page 59... ... 3.5.2.2.1 Electricity and Feedstock Requirements for Hydrogen Production Figure 3-8 shows a tabulation of the amount of water, electricity, and natural gas to make clean hydrogen via water electrolysis, steam methane reforming (SMR) , autothermal reforming (ATR) Read the entire page →
From page 60... ... to run carbon capture, as well as water feed and final product purification steps. POx combusts additional natural gas feed to produce excess heat, which is used to generate electricity to power all process steps, such that all CO2 is generated in one stream for capture, reducing capital costs (Liu 2021) Read the entire page →
From page 61... ... Maximum electricity and/or hydrogen and natural gas feedstock and process energy inputs are based on industry reports (Liu 2021) , including those compiled by IEA (IEAGHG 2017) Read the entire page →
From page 62... ... . Nature-based solutions for carbon removal might find preferential approval over technology (Wolske et al. Read the entire page →
From page 63... ... CC BY 4.0. FIGURE 3-11 Market size projections for several major CO2-derived products through 2050. Read the entire page →
From page 64... ... Developing such synergies may include, for instance, colocating at least one DAC and hydrogen hub pair, or locating hubs in regions with an industrial focus to facilitate the adoption of CO2 utilization and spur private investment. DOE's Notice of Intent for the hydrogen hubs calls for such integration with industrial uses of hydrogen, which could include CO2 utilization: "End-use diversity -- at least one hub shall demonstrate the end-use of clean hydrogen in the electric power generation sector, one in the industrial sector, one in the residential and commercial heating sector, and one in the transportation sector" (DOE-OCED 2022) Read the entire page →
From page 65... ... Using the GREET model to estimate energy use of alternative-fueled vehicles, the study found that electric cars use 45 percent of the energy of conventional vehicles, fuel-cell vehicles powered with electrolytic hydrogen generated from renewable energy use 78 percent of the energy of conventional vehicles, and conventional vehicles powered by synthetic fuels synthesized from CO2 and electrolytic hydrogen using renewable energy use 297 percent of the energy of conventional vehicles (NASEM 2021b) Read the entire page →
From page 66... ... For example, CO2 utilization may offer opportunities for CDR at lower cost for Track 1 chemical products compared to CCS, access to Track 2 carbon products with lower land-use requirements than biomass-derived ones, and, for both product tracks, a new industry that may address environmental justice and other negative impacts related to the production of incumbent chemicals and materials. Forecasts for the magnitude of the emerging CCU industry necessarily cover a wide range, but even at Read the entire page →
From page 67... ... For all assessments of net-zero or net-negative emissions status of CO2 utilization products, it is important to estimate the full life cycle impact of the process, including upstream and downstream greenhouse gas emissions associated with the process, feedstock origin, energy use, product fate, co-product fate, and associated waste. To ensure simultaneous economic viability and environmental justice, techno-economic assessments and societal factors have to be fully integrated with life cycle assessments. Read the entire page →
From page 68... ... Electricity and hydrogen inputs can be substantially decarbonized by adding carbon capture and storage to existing infrastructure for generation from fossil fuels, or by building new infrastructure using zerocarbon-emissions options such as solar, wind, nuclear, or geothermal power. FINDING 3.9 Energy and Hydrogen Requirements. Read the entire page →
From page 69... ... with Carbon Capture, Use, and Storage." McKinsey, June 30. https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/ driving-co2-emissions-to-zero-and-beyond-with-carbon-capture-use-and-storage. Read the entire page →
From page 70... ... 2020. "The Role of Carbon Capture and Utilization, Carbon Capture and Storage, and Biomass to Enable a Net-Zero-CO2 Emissions Chemical Industry." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 59(15) Read the entire page →
From page 71... ... 2021. "Consumer Acceptance of Products from Carbon Capture and Utilization." Climatic Change 166(1–2) Read the entire page →
From page 72... ... 2019. Meeting the Dual Challenge: A Roadmap to At-Scale Deployment of Carbon Capture, Use, and Storage. Read the entire page →
From page 73... ... 2019. "Utilization of Mineral Carbonation Products: Current State and Potential." Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology 9(6) Read the entire page →
From page 74... ... . Per the Global CCS Institute's CO2RE database, as of June 2022, about 60 carbon capture projects are in various stages of development in the United States, only one of which is for direct air capture (DAC) Read the entire page →
From page 75... ... Drawing from these publications, Table 4-1 summarizes the maturity of select carbon capture technologies. Today's commercial CCS facilities are deployed at natural gas processing plants, fertilizer plants, bioethanol plants, coal-fired power plants, and hydrogen production facilities, while other applications are under development. Read the entire page →
From page 76... ... Membranes • Room-temperature ionic • Polymeric membranes/cryogenic • Polymeric membranes • Natural gas processing liquid membranes separation hybrid • Electrochemical membrane membranes • Catalytic membrane reactor • Polymeric membranes/solvent hybrid integrated with molten • Electrodialysis • Ceramic membrane carbonate fuel cells • Membrane contactors • Zeolite membrane • PEEK membrane Other technologies • Hydrolytic softening • Calcium looping • Chemical combustion looping • Allam-Fetvedt cycle • Calix advanced calciner SOURCES: Data from Concawe (2021) Read the entire page →
From page 77... ... TABLE 4-2 RD&D Targets to Improve Carbon Capture Systems CO2 Capture Technology Research Trends for Reducing Carbon Capture Costs Advanced solvents • Fast sorption and desorption kinetics • Lower regeneration energy requirements • Lower degradation rates • Water-lean solvents Sorbents • Low-cost materials with high CO2 adsorption rate and capacity • Fast spent sorbent regeneration rates • Improved durability over multiple regeneration cycles with little to no attrition • Low heats of adsorption • Adequately hydrophobic Membranes • High CO2 permeability and selectivity • Low-cost materials • Improved durability determined by mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and thermal stability • Integration into low-pressure drop modules • Highly hydrophobic Novel concepts • Electrochemical capture • Crystallization • Microwave enhancement SOURCE: Data from National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2020, 2020 Carbon Capture Program R&D: Compendium of Carbon Capture Technology, Pittsburgh: National Energy Technology Laboratory, https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/2020-07/Carbon-CaptureTechnology-Compendium-2020.pdf. Read the entire page →
From page 78... ... , and particulate matter are likely to decrease because of the additional purification of the flue gas stream required before it enters the capture unit. Most carbon capture technologies are poisoned by sulfur compounds, so flue gas pre-treatment for carbon capture removes SOx in excess of what is scrubbed out during typical flue gas desulfurization in power plants (EEA 2020) Read the entire page →
From page 79... ... TABLE 4-3 Overview of Impurity Concentrations of CO2 Streams from Different Illustrative Facility Types Subcritical Pulverized Oxyfuel Bituminous Coal Combustion at (Illinois #6) Plant Supercritical with Post-Combustion Natural Gas with Pulverized Coal Bioethanol Capturea Carbon Capturec Planta,d Cement Planta Refinery Stacka Plante Direct Air Capturef Gas leaving the Gas leaving the Gas leaving the Gas leaving the carbon capture unit carbon capture unit carbon capture unit carbon capture unit Raw CO2 gas Gas leaving the (post combustion with (post combustion with Gas leaving the (post combustion with (post combustion from ethanol capture unit (KOH Component MEAb) Read the entire page →
From page 80... ... Hydrogen or Ammonia Acid Neutralization Wells/Geothermal Coal Gasification Phosphate Rock Ethylene Oxide Vinyl Acetate Combustion Impurity Aldehydes ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Amines ü ü Benzene ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Carbon monoxide ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Carbonyl sulfide ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Dimethyl sulfide ü ü ü ü ü ü Ethanol ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Ethers ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Ethyl acetate ü ü ü ü ü ü Ethyl benzene ü ü ü ü ü ü Ethylene oxide ü ü Halocarbons ü ü ü ü ü Hydrogen cyanide ü ü Hydrogen sulfide ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Ketones ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Mercaptans ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Mercury ü ü ü Methanol ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Nitrogen oxides ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Phosphine ü Radon ü ü ü Sulfur dioxide ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Toluene ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Vinyl chloride ü ü ü ü Volatile hydrocarbons ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü Xylene ü ü ü ü ü ü ü SOURCE: Adapted from European Industrial Gases Association, 2016, "Carbon Dioxide Food and Beverages Grade, Source Qualification, Quality Standards and Verification," EIGA Doc 70/17, revision of Doc 70/08, https://www.eiga.eu/ct_documents/doc070-pdf. Read the entire page →

From page 48...

... . For others, the introduction of carbon into these products is new, namely construction materials in Track 1 such as CO2-cured concrete or carbonated aggregates.