Reducing Racial Inequality in Crime and Justice Science, Practice, and Policy (2023) / Chapter Skim
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7 Non-Criminal Policy Approaches to Reduce Racial Inequalities in Crime and Justice
7 Non-Criminal Policy Approaches to Reduce Racial Inequalities in Crime and Justice
Pages 227-264
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With that in mind, in this chapter we address the noncriminal policy approaches (i.e., in systems outside of the criminal justice system) that hold promise for reducing racial inequality in the justice system.
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Policies and Programs to Address Underinvestment This report takes a historical view on racial inequalities in crime and justice. It is a perspective that informs the need for structural poli cies and programs to address decades-long patterns of disinvestment ( including underinvestment)
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Investments that contribute to homeownership have also been explored in relation to reducing crime and racial inequalities, as large gaps in neighborhood crime rates exist between White and minority communities (see Chapter 3)
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finds that neighborhoods with relatively large shares of evictions observed an increase in violent crime rates, and that such eviction levels help explain the increased risk of violent crime in Boston neighborhoods with relatively large shares of Black residents and high levels of concentrated disadvantage. Boessen and Chamberlain (2017)
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note that the documented relationship between the Neighborhood Matching Fund program and violent crime reduction in Seattle underscores the significant role that external investments can play in facilitating neigh borhood well-being, social control, and crime. However, researchers cau tion that before forming partnerships, local organizations need to consider who they are investing in, who is being neglected, whether the investments are beneficial or harmful (e.g., subprime loans)
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find that BID implementation was associated with a 12 percent reduction in robberies and an eight percent reduction in total violent crimes in Los Angeles neighborhoods. Brooks (2008)
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synthesize some of the quantitative and qualitative evidence on the impact of green space on violent crime (i.e., on murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault)
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BOX 7-1 "Greening" Cities: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS) LandCare Program The PHS LandCare program, which began in a single neighborhood and expanded to incorporate the entire city, involves turning vacant lots into park-like settings that are cleaned and maintained through community partnerships.
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SOURCE: J MacDonald, Changing Places: Renovating and Rebuilding Infrastructure to Reduce Racial Disparities in Victimizations and Arrests (Committee on Reducing Racial Inequalities in the Criminal Justice System Workshop #2: Addressing the Drivers of Criminal Justice Involvement to Advance Racial Equity, Washington, DC, March 15, 2021)
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With respect to the crime and delinquency outcomes, the offer to relocate to lower-poverty areas was found to reduce arrests among female youth for violent and property crimes, relative to the control group. For males, the offer to relocate reduced arrests for violent crime, at least in the short run, but increased problem behaviors and property crime arrests.
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. Nonetheless, the MTO project provides important findings for reducing racial inequalities and directions for future research that integrates other important factors such as urban dynamics, social structure, and developmental neighborhood effects.
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However, while the former aims to improve the material well-being of disadvantaged communities and their residents and thereby reduce crime rates and racial inequalities, the latter aims to improve job prospects during reentry from prison, more specifically to reduce recidivism. Employment Opportunities for Labor Market Success Chapter 4 documents the consequences of criminal justice system involvement for racial inequality.
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. In summary, a better understanding of the key mechanisms of reentry employment programs and contextual, protective factors to support sustained labor market success would inform a strong evidence base from which to build solutions.
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This is an example of a well-intended policy that, research suggests, had unintended effects that can be harmful for specific racial and ethnic groups. A growing body of literature suggests that the BTB policies have led to labor market discrimination (Raphael, 2021; Schneider et al., 2021; Agan and Starr, 2018; Solinas-Saunders et al., 2015)
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, and Boston (MA) generally have led to similar findings, namely that summer youth employment programs resulted in large declines in criminal justice involvement and violence, although little improvement in future employment was found on average (Kessler et al., 2021; Davis and Heller, 2020; Modestino, 2019; Gelber et al., 2016; Heller, 2014)
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Although the evidence presented here does not directly connect transportation and job accessibility to racially disparate outcomes in criminal behavior and/or system involvement, this section presents a potential area for future re search: if and how racial inequalities in crime and justice might be ad dressed given the disparities that are observed in job accessibility and access to quality transportation. PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACHES TO VIOLENCE Public safety and violence are significant indicators of health and community well-being.
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Here, the committee relies on systematic reviews, high-quality studies, and reviews of the literature from authoritative, evidence-based sources to synthesize some of the literature on public health approaches to violence. Firearm Violence and Related Policies To address the problem of racial disparities in crime, victimization, and criminal justice involvement, one needs to consider the issue of gun violence.
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. In summary, the John Jay research group concludes that violence can be reduced through policies that limit access to firearms, increase restrictions for people with histories of violent crime, reduce access to firearms for young people, impose waiting periods, and increase required firearm training (John Jay College Research Advisory Group on Preventing and Reducing C ommunity Violence, 2020)
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Reducing Harmful Environmental Exposures Chapter 3 draws a connection between concentrated disadvantage and toxic exposures such as lead and air pollution, which have been linked to crime and criminal justice contact. This section describes some of the literature that connects lead exposure as one toxic mechanism for influencing criminal outcomes and as an environmental pathway that contributes to racial inequalities (Sampson and Winter, 2016)
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. However, the nature of racial inequality in concentrated disadvantage imposes a disparate impact on primarily Black and Latino neighborhoods.
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. INTERVENTIONS IN OTHER SYSTEMS This section explores interventions that take place in the adjacent social policy systems or institutions -- such as education, child welfare, and health systems -- that can perpetuate, compound, or mitigate racial inequality in and outside of the criminal justice system.
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in February 2018 acknowledges the positive outcomes families and communities experience when child welfare systems devote more resources to preventing the need for foster care. Previously, resources were targeted to families who have had their children placed in foster care, but very few resources are available to strengthen families and prevent foster care.
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. Protecting Ties between Incarcerated Parents and Their Children and Families Parental incarceration is one reason children may be fast-tracked to adoption under the Adoption and Safe Families Act, which requires states to file for the termination of parental rights for any child in foster care for 15 of the most recent 22 months (Children's Bureau, 2021)
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Providing incarcerated parents with a family conferencing model "can be extremely helpful in ensuring engagement and smoother communication between the parent, child, and child welfare agency" (Annie E Casey Foundation, 2011)
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Jail,6 can create a more welcoming environment for children in what can otherwise be an intimidating or tense environment. Reducing the barriers to communication between incarcerated parents and children can support relationship development.
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To this end, the committee reviews some of the literature on providing high-quality ECE and care, investigating promising charter school models, and reforming school disciplinary practices. Early Childhood Education and Care The ECE literature identifies high-quality early learning and care as protective against future involvement in criminal behavior and criminal justice involvement (Lochner and Moretti, 2004)
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. Not only do high-quality ECE programs reduce criminal justice involvement, but they also result in long-term societal cost-savings, which in large part can be attributed to crime reduction (García et al., 2020)
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To date, the direct evidence that attending No Excuses charter schools reduces criminal justice involvement for minority youth in disadvantaged urban communities is limited. The students in many of these studies have not been followed into their adult lives.
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. Much of the existing research on the "school-to prison pipeline" suggests that the disparities in school discipline by race and ethnicity are associated with the disparities seen in juvenile justice involvement, including the fact that Black youth are more than twice as likely as White youth to be arrested as juveniles (5.4% compared to 2.1%)
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Given the disproportionate filtering of students into the juvenile justice system from schools, one strategy to reduce disparities in the juvenile justice system is to invest in alternative school disciplinary strategies, such as the use of multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS; Ricks and Esthappan, 2018; Solomon et al., 2018)
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. Another program that has shown promise in reducing racial disparities in the juvenile justice system is the Philadelphia Police School Diversion Program.
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. One study found that as schools increase their use of police, they record more crimes involving weapons and drugs, and they report a higher percentage of their nonserious violent crimes to law enforcement (Na and Gottfredson, 2013)
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By disrupting pathways that lead to criminal justice involvement, such as expulsions and SRO referrals for non-criminal behaviors, schools can be a promising site of intervention for reducing racial disparities in criminal justice contact and arrests for youth. Promoting Health and Well-being The racial inequalities in crime and justice that are discussed throughout this report are also reflected in health and well-being indicators.
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Another study examines state-level crime data from 2009 to 2018 using a differences-in-differences design and reports that states that expanded Medicaid during this time period observed a 5.3 percent decrease in violent crime rates when compared to states that did not expand coverage (Vogler, 2020)
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The public ses sions were one mechanism that the committee used to gather information on the perspectives and experiences of communities that are disproportionately affected by racial inequalities in the criminal justice system. The statements reflected here are those of the presenters and do not represent the views of the committee or the National Academies.
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Evidence-based treatments for adolescents can be adapted for use with transition-age youth; however, they often rely heavily on parental involve ment, an approach that may be less effective or feasible with transition-age youth who may be living independently, living with peers, or otherwise disengaged from their family of origin. In a study of collaboration between child welfare and juvenile justice, two factors predicted successful coordination of mental health services: (1)
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Under mental health diversion programs, justice and social services agencies collaborate to divert youth offenders with mental disorders to mental health treatment in lieu of further court processing. It is hoped that -- if mental health treatment is effective -- diversion programs can help to reduce recidivism and the severity of crimes committed by offenders with mental disorders, thereby reducing the societal cost of crime.
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Addressing such "root causes" of racial inequalities is necessarily a long-term approach, one that will require commitment from a large swath of social institutions and stakeholders. Such approaches can be augmented by specific criminal justice system reforms that target reducing racial disparities at key points in the system.
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