Advancing Antiracism, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in STEMM Organizations Beyond Broadening Participation (2023) / Chapter Skim
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2 The Historical and Contemporary Context for Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Racism in the United States
2 The Historical and Contemporary Context for Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Racism in the United States
Pages 18-51
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These racist belief systems created a false racial hierarchy under which Non-Hispanic White people are believed to be superior, and Black people, Indigenous people, and systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people are considered inferior. This chapter then reviews the evidence on the codification of racism through national laws, policies, and numerous other mechanisms.
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The chapter also reviews the literature on how minority serving institutions (MSIs) emerged as a critical higher educational resource when higher educational opportunities were severely limited for minoritized people.
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. The current chapter focuses on each of these macro level forms of racism together and how they impede STEMM careers for minoritized racial and ethnic people.
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. Racism directed at minoritized people, including Latine individuals, also dates back to the founding of the United States (Carrigan & Webb, 2003; Jung et al., 2011)
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Across these sectors, the committee finds that the codification of racism restricted how Black people, Indigenous people, and other minoritized people were allowed to live, whether and where they were allowed to go to school, other educational opportunities they had access to, the careers they could pursue, the wealth they could accumulate and pass on to their children, and other aspects of everyday life that underlie entry and accessibility into STEMM educational and professional spaces. Therefore, this section demonstrates the codification of racism strengthened and continually reinforced the false racial hierarchy through the systematic advantage of nonHispanic White people and the systematic disadvantage of Black people, Indigenous people, and other minoritized people.
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Over time, many states and localities beyond the South also adopted Jim Crow-inspired restrictions on the social interaction of Black and White individuals. Jim Crow laws seemingly violated the Civil Rights Act of 1875, but in 1896, in Plessy vs.
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While lynchings were focused on one to three targets owing to some episodic perceived violation, oftentimes Black progress in general was the reason for a false accusation that was used to justify more widespread destruction within a community. For example, in many locales, when Black individuals started to gain ownership of small businesses and began to accrue wealth, White individuals would often respond by forming mobs, burning down the business district, raping and/or murdering Black people, and running all surviving Black individuals out of town.
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The Jim Crow era was finally ended through civil rights struggle, but many of its damaging consequences remain. UNEQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES Jim Crow laws also created segregated education and educational opportunities on the basis of race.
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. In the decades before the civil rights era, constrained educational opportunities were not limited solely by Jim Crow laws to Southern schools and not imposed only on Black students.
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. While it is true that Asian American and Pacific Islander students as a group account for approximately 18 percent of the students admitted at 91 of the nation's most selective colleges and universities (Carnevale & Quinn 2021)
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. Black and Hispanic students, however, are more likely than White students to enroll at colleges and universities that are less selective, categorized by admissions competitiveness as defined by the Barron's Profile of American Colleges, and these institutions may have less money to spend on the enrichment programs that are a crucial part of STEMM education in particular (Barron, 2019)
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Studies have shown that Black students and Latine students are less likely to graduate from college than White students (Shapiro et al., 2017)
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. These two programs formally institutionalized redlining in real estate and banking, which had the effect of relegating Black Americans, as well as other systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people, to disadvantaged neighborhoods, which had the further effect of preventing them from owning homes and building generational wealth (Rothstein, 2018)
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Today, more than 50 years after passage of the Fair Housing Act, neighborhood segregation persists for Black people, Indigenous people, Latine people, and Asian American people and imposes unfair burdens on people from those communities even when they have the same income or education levels as people from predominantly White neighborhoods (Frey, 2021)
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. As the authors of this study conclude, "With lower family wealth and racial discrimination in the job market, Black students are far more likely than White students to experience negative financial events after graduating -- including loan default, higher interest rate payments, and higher graduate school debt balances." According to an analysis by the Education Data Initiative, Black college graduates owe an average of $25,000 more in student load debt than White college graduates (Hanson, 2022)
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. The policies enacted as part of the New Deal, for example, reserved most of these benefits for White workers while restricting and excluding minoritized people by exempting many domestic, agricultural, and service occupations from the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, actions that helped institutionalize and validate racial disparities in economic wellbeing (The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 2011; Linder, 1986)
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. Live-in domestic service workers, babysitters, and companions for older persons -- all occupations in which minoritized people are disproportionately represented -- also remain excluded from many Fair Labor Standards Act protections (Labor, 2022)
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. A study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that minoritized people generally fare worse compared to White people across most examined measures of social determinants of health (Jack et al., 2012)
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MINORITY SERVING INSTITUTIONS As mentioned above, in response to laws and practices that limited the opportunities for Black students to attend college, Black ministers and White philanthropists established institutions that came to be known as HBCUs. Over the years, institutions of higher education designed to honor and reflect Native Americans and Latine culture have also been established.
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. As noted above, HBCUs have been chronically underfunded by both federal and state governments, despite the pivotal role they play in advancing representation of historically racialized and minoritized people in STEMM.
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Given the general divestment in higher education by the states over the past four decades, HBCUs are particularly vulnerable to underfunding. The authors of this study concluded that "because HBCUs are mission-driven to broaden college opportunities for Black students, many of whom have limited financial resources, these colleges and universities cannot increase costs to offset public divestments in higher education.
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The NSF states TCUP "supports tribal colleges and universities, Alaska Native-serving institutions, and Native Hawaiian-serving institutions to promote STEM research and education to increase the number of Native Americans in STEM careers" (NSF a, n.d.)
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. Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions (AANAPISI)
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Minoritized people face numerous systematic disadvantages across these sectors, with these disadvantages each acting as a barrier to entry and accessibility into the STEMM educational and workforce settings. STEMM organizations, and the educational and professional 2-24 Pre-Publication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs
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. With fewer Black people, Indigenous people, and other systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people able to enter STEMM in years past, there are fewer role models and smaller communities of support for entrants (see Chapters 4 and 5 for more about the experiences of minoritized people)
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(1988) Black students in U.S.
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. Selective Bias: Asian Americans, Test Scores, and Holistic Admission.
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. Neighborhood segregation persists for Black, Latino or Hispanic, and Asian Americans.
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. Historically Black Colleges and Universities: A Reference Handbook.
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. Farm workers and the fair labor standards act: racial discrimination in the new deal.
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. Strengthening Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions through policy and practice.
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. Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions.
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. Applications for New Awards: Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions Program.
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. "A Study of Negro Elementary Education in North Alabama." Journal of Negro Education 20: 39–49.
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