Pollinator Habitat Conservation Along Roadways, Volume 4: Great Basin (2023) / Chapter Skim
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From page 131... ...
7-1 Chapter 7 Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7.1 Introduction Habitat loss is a leading factor in the decline of many pollinators (NRC 2007) , and increasing pollinator habitat is an effective conservation strategy (e.g., Tonietto and Larkin 2018)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-2 7.2 Considering Imperiled Pollinators in Revegetation Enhancing habitat for imperiled pollinators, or for pollinators in general, can be a specific objective for revegetation projects. Even if it is not a specific objective, elements that increase the value of the revegetation project to pollinators can be incorporated into other project objectives.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-3 Pollinators Food for Larval Stage Food for Adult Shelter, Overwintering General Revegetation Goals Tunnel‐ nesting bees Provisions of nectar and pollen within the nest. Nectar. Nest in narrow tunnels in dead standing trees, or excavate nests in hollow stems or pith of twigs. Some construct domed nests of mud, plant resins, saps, or gums on the surface of rocks or trees. Increase density and diversity of native flowering plants. Retain or install woody plants and herbaceous plants with hollow or pithy stems.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-4 Pollinators Food for Larval Stage Food for Adult Shelter, Overwintering General Revegetation Goals Flies Some species are carnivorous, consuming prey such as aphids, scales, or mites; others are decomposers in the soil. Nectar; some species also eat pollen. Overwinter in soil or leaf litter. Increase density and diversity of native flowering plants. Retain overwintering sites when feasible.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-5 monotony, contributing to clearer thinking, and reducing driver stress (Topp 1990; Cackowsky and Nasar 2003; Mok et al. 2006; Macdonald et al.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-6 roadside landscapes found that prairie plantings were ranked as most attractive, and a mix of trees, shrubs, and prairie also ranked highly. Mown turf, along with brome grass with a mowed turf edge, were ranked the least attractive by drivers (Nassauer et al.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-7 Munguira and Thomas 1992) , as well as those that use the roadside as a partial habitat for foraging but reproduce or overwinter elsewhere (e.g., Ouin et al.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-8 It can be helpful to emulate the species diversity found on reference sites in nearby natural plant communities. Diverse plantings that resemble natural communities are the most selfsustaining and longest lasting because they better resist weed invasions and pest outbreaks.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-9 7.3.3 Roadsides and Connectivity Landscape connectivity is increasingly important for the populations of many species, including pollinators (Haddad 1999; Haddad and Baum 1999)
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From page 140... ...
Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-10 plant vegetation across a growing season in seed mixes should be the goal in order to prevent grasses from outcompeting wildflowers. Flowering plant cover could be spread out throughout the growing season, with 15 percent cover of species that flower in spring, 15 percent in summer, and 15 percent in autumn.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-11 Consider additional specific habitat needs, such as nesting or overwintering habitat. Some imperiled species have very specific habitat needs.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-12 provide erosion control as they grow through the summer months and into the fall. Legumes can fix nitrogen and improve soil health.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-13 Where available and economical, native plants and seed should be procured from local ecotype providers. Local ecotype plant materials are adapted to the local climatic conditions, will generally establish well, and will have bloom times in sync with the presence of monarchs and other pollinators.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-14 Table 7-3. Native Plants with value to pollinators for use on roadsides in the Great Basin.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-15 Scientific Name Common Name Bloom Period Life Cycle Form (Forb, Shrub, Tree, Sedge, Grass) Sun Soil (Dry, Moist, Wet)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-16 Scientific Name Common Name Bloom Period Life Cycle Form (Forb, Shrub, Tree, Sedge, Grass) Sun Soil (Dry, Moist, Wet)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-17 Scientific Name Common Name Bloom Period Life Cycle Form (Forb, Shrub, Tree, Sedge, Grass) Sun Soil (Dry, Moist, Wet)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-18 Scientific Name Common Name Bloom Period Life Cycle Form (Forb, Shrub, Tree, Sedge, Grass) Sun Soil (Dry, Moist, Wet)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-19 Scientific Name Common Name Bloom Period Life Cycle Form (Forb, Shrub, Tree, Sedge, Grass) Sun Soil (Dry, Moist, Wet)
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7-20 Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation To identify additional species appropriate to this region and valuable to pollinators, use the Ecoregional Revegetation Assistant Tool, a map-based online tool to aid practitioners when selecting native plants for restoration and pollinator habitat enhancement. The map can be used to find a state or US Environmental Protection Agency Level III Ecoregion, and the tool will produce a list of plants and plant attributes suitable for that area.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-21 Plantings for pollinators at rest areas or welcome centers can also be opportunities for experimentation, places where DOTs can trial particular seed mixes or planting methods on a smaller scale before implementing them on a larger area. Wisconsin DOT, for example, is currently restoring prairie at two of its busiest rest areas, removing invasive species and interseeding additional prairie species. There are also opportunities for collaborations and partnerships in these spaces. Georgia DOT is in the process of installing pollinator habitats at some of rest areas and welcome centers, in partnership with the Georgia Association of Conservation Districts. Kansas DOT worked with partners to trial prescribed burning to manage plantings at several of their rest areas. 7.4 Installation Considerations for Revegetation 7.4.1 Sourcing Plant Materials Obtaining locally or regionally sourced native plant materials in sufficient quality and quantities for a project involves advance planning. Coordination with native plant providers early in the planning process is important.
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From page 152... ...
Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-22 any amount of weed seed or inert material. Review the certificate before purchase of the seed lot and reject seed lots that contain undesirable species as contaminants that might pose a risk to the planting.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-23 an integrated vegetation management plan to address weed issues; the planting of native species to enhance pollinator habitat; removal of non-native species from species mixes; and obtaining expert training or assistance on pollinators-friendly practices. Funding was not appropriated by Congress as part of the FY 2022 budget for either the Invasive Plant Elimination Program or the Pollinator-Friendly Practices grant program but will hopefully be included in future budgets.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-24 https://legiscan.com/NJ/text/S227/2016. North Carolina passed an act to prioritize the use of native plants on roadsides in 2019.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-25 Box 7‐2. Scorecard for prioritizing sites for revegetation to support imperiled pollinators Resources to install high‐quality, diverse native plant material may be limited. Limited resources can be leveraged by prioritizing some roadside sites for revegetation that involves habitat restoration for imperiled or at‐risk pollinators. Use this tool to help determine a score for a site that can be helpful in site prioritization. Select all the options that apply to the site: ⌧ Presence of focal pollinator species. A listed or imperiled pollinator species is known to be in the vicinity or was previously found at the site. (2pts) ⌧ Landscape connectivity. The site improves connectivity of existing habitat within the landscape. For example, the site is near or connected to a natural area (e.g., state park, national forest, nature preserve)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-26 Chapter 9 includes a tool to help evaluate sites for their conservation value to pollinators: the Pollinator Habitat Assessment Guide for Roadsides. The tool includes a rapid assessment and a comprehensive assessment of roadside pollinator habitat.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-27 When installing seeds, select the method of seeding that is most appropriate for the site. See Table 7-5 for an overview of the advantages, disadvantages, and tips on seeding techniques, using the three main seeding methods used in roadside revegetation.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-28 Seeding Method Where to Use Site Preparation Needed Seeding Techniques Following Seeding Greater quantities of seed (up to 50% more) are required.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-29 Seeding Method Where to Use Site Preparation Needed Seeding Techniques Following Seeding The project can be seeded from the shoulder. Hydroseeding is good for visible sites; hydromulch can hold the seed in place until there is enough moisture for germination and protect it from seed predators.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-30 Spread weed-free straw, bark, or wood chip mulch around the plants to reduce weed competition and to hold in moisture. Irrigate the transplants thoroughly immediately after planting.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-31 strategic mowing (e.g., using a carefully timed high mow to target weeds)
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-32 Issues / Concerns Management Options Invasive weed management Use mowing or herbicides (or less commonly, prescribed burning or grazing) to control invasives, timing management for when target species are most vulnerable. 7.5 Case Studies 7.5.1 Adapting Design and Management in Washington Washington DOT is working to restore corridors of ROWs to design roadsides so that they look seamless with the surrounding landscape, as if no construction has taken place.
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Chapter 7. Revegetation and Pollinators: Design and Implementation 7-33 to provide nectar for monarchs, including purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) , smooth aster (Symphyotrichum laeve)
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8-1 Chapter 8 Creating ClimateSmart Pollinator Habitat Along Roadsides 8.1 Introduction More than 98 percent of climate scientists agree that climate change is occurring and that human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, are the cause. The effects are already being felt across the country in rising temperatures and increased frequency of extreme weather events.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-2 Increased temperatures can cause rutting, cracking, and buckling of roads. Nationally, 60,000 miles of bridges and roads run through coastal floodplains, which are at increased risk from flooding and storms.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-3 Range shifts. Species may change their distributions to track more optimal climate.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-4 8.5 Increasing Climate Resiliency for Pollinators Increasing climate resilience for pollinators requires a multifaceted approach. Creating and restoring habitat, increasing habitat connectivity, and reducing other stressors are all key components for increasing pollinator climate resilience.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-5 8.5.3 Reducing Additional Stressors Reducing stressors (i.e., drivers of pollinator declines; see Chapter 3) to pollinators such as pesticide exposure, habitat loss, and invasive species is important because these different stressors can interact with each other and with climate change to magnify negative effects on pollinators.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-6 native bees nest in wood or pithy-stemmed plants. Retaining downed logs and snags where possible will provide nesting habitat for some of these species, while planting native, pithystemmed plants like goldenrod or wild rose will provide nesting habitat for others (see Chapter 7 for a plant list that includes species used for nesting by cavity-nesting bees)
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-7 capacity (the number of pollinators that can be supported by the habitat)
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-8 Table 8-1. Plant traits that will generally be beneficial for adapting to different conditions associated with climate change.
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Chapter 8. Creating Climate‐Smart Pollinator Habitat along Roadsides 8-9 (Harrison 2014)
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9-1 Chapter 9 Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9.1 Introduction Assessments of pollinator communities and metrics for roadside pollinator habitat can provide valuable information for departments of transportation (DOTs) looking to implement voluntary pollinator conservation goals.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-2 rather than measure abundance (Taron and Ries 2015)
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-3 • If your target species is listed under the ESA, you may need to obtain a recovery permit if working in zones where the species may occur.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-4 delineated and sampled separately.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-5 • Insects visiting flowers should not be disturbed before an observation can be made.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-6 If multiple roadside sampling areas are surveyed, the differences observed in native bee abundance reflect differences in habitat quality among sites.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-7 To calculate species richness for each sampling period or each year, the total number of bee groups and butterfly groups observed is tallied.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-8 and will vary with elevation when planning the survey period.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-9 side)
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-10 9.2.3 Bumble Bee Protocol Overview of Procedure What the procedure will measure: Bumble bee presence or absence, species diversity Sampling design: Transects within the project area Sampling time of year: Survey once or more within the window of the documented flight period of your target species (see species-specific details in Chapter 3)
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-11 captured or photographed.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-12 Monitoring Protocol This protocol can be used to detect trends in known populations by using the following protocol multiple times per year for multiple years.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-13 Figure 9 -1.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-14 Figure 9 -2.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-15 Figure 9 -2.
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-16 These habitat assessment guides are included as a separate document and can be found on the National Academies Press website (https://nap.nationalacademies.org/)
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-17 An Integrated Approach to Establishing Native Plants and Pollinator Habitat (2017)
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Chapter 9. Surveys, Monitoring Strategies, and Habitat Assessments 9-18 Hamilton, Randy.
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10-1 Chapter 10 Cost-Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10.1 Introduction The relative costs and benefits of maintaining existing or establishing new pollinator habitat along roadsides are important considerations when incorporating Endangered Species Act (ESA) compliance, species conservation, and habitat management into transportation planning, design, construction, and maintenance.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-2 Figure 10-1. Objectives of a triple bottom line.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-3 Case Study: Arizona DOT Sustainable Transportation Program: INVEST Case Studies Arizona DOT recognizes the importance of sustainability in the long-term success of the state's transportation network, and has embraced the triple bottom line approach systematically through its administrative, planning, design, construction, operations, and maintenance activities. To achieve its ambitious sustainability goals, Arizona DOT has applied the sustainability tools of the FHWA INVEST program to a wide variety of case studies.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-4 The costs and benefits could also be considered in the context of the adjacent urban, agricultural, or natural land uses. For example, improving pollinator habitat on roadsides surrounded by natural habitat may seem unnecessary (providing little additional relative conservation value)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-5 and species overall, is unlikely to slow down because of ongoing factors such as loss of habitat, impacts from pesticides, and the effects of climate change. Source: USFWS 2018. Note: Includes Threatened and Endangered listings under the 1973 ESA and its precursors. Figure 10-2.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-6 costs. Developing long-term Habitat Conservation Plans (Section 10 of the ESA)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-7 Every transportation project proposed in the plan area has been built; none have been stopped or stalled due to ESA or California ESA issues. With the MSHCP in place, ESA compliance no longer impedes the path of project environmental compliance.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-8 Reduced Mowing, a Triple Bottom Line for DOTs Environmental Benefits Reduced mowing can allow flowering plants to flower, providing pollinators with pollen and nectar and small wildlife with seeds and fruits. The transition from frequently mowed grass to more diverse grasslands or early successional habitat can increase wildlife habitat quality and reduce habitat fragmentation (AASHTO 2011)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-9 10.3.3 Revegetation Costs and Benefits: Use of Native Plants Native plants can be used to meet goals for safe and efficient transportation, while supporting ecosystem health. Although the initial costs of establishing native plant material are higher -- particularly where a higher density and diversity of flowering plants are required -- than the costs of low diversity mixes that are heavy on introduced grasses, native plants are often more cost-effective in the long term.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-10 Taking advantage of federal funding. Planting native vegetation is an eligible use of federal-aid highway funds.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-11 Case Study: Prairie Plants More Cost-Effective over Time on Indiana Roadsides A collaborative highway research project involving researchers from Purdue University, the Indiana DOT, and the FHWA evaluated plants for use on Indiana's roadsides. Specifically, the project looked at establishment of three types of roadside plantings: turfgrass, garden wildflower mixes, and native wildflower mixes.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-12 decision over time. This is especially true when considering decisions regarding sustainability and the triple bottom line (Waite 2013)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-13 10.4.2 Triple Bottom Line Cost-Benefit Analysis Tool The purpose of this tool is to assist state DOTs in evaluating design features and maintenance actions that can be implemented to benefit pollinators. This tool will assist with organizing cost and benefit information, establishing the environmental and temporal contexts for evaluation, and providing the rationale and justification for selection of the preferred choice, considering the short- and long-term environmental, societal, and economic costs and benefits.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-14 c. Describe the intended outcome of the action using the pollinator cost-benefit cubes (refer to the Pollinator Cost-Benefit Cubes section below)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-15 Is the project located on a stretch of road in which the landscape is monotonous, and increasing plant diversity could improve driver safety? Does the action have landscape benefits that extend beyond benefits to pollinators (e.g., does it increase carbon sequestration)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-16 Pollinator Cost-Benefit Cubes Use these cubes to identify conservation actions for pollinators to consider in roadside projects and management. Integrate the selected cubes into the triple bottom line costbenefit analysis as described in the Steps to Conduct a Triple Bottom Line Cost-Benefit Analysis for Pollinators on Roadsides section above.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-17 Mowing Mowing Limit mowing beyond the clear zone to no more than twice per year. Aim to mow no more than one‐third to half of an area beyond the clear zone per year (e.g., rotate mowing sections of a roadside) . Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low G I, G Co st Low I, G Medium Medium High High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Mowing Mowing Limit mowing beyond the clear zone to once or less per year. Clean mowing equipment after use and between sites to limit the spread of weeds. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low I, G Co st Low I, G Medium Medium High High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-18 Mowing Delay mowing as late as possible during the growing season (e.g., mow in autumn) so blooming plants are available throughout the growing season. Benefit High Medium Low Co st Low Medium I, G I, G High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Herbicides Herbicides Herbicides Avoid use of products that have toxicity to imperiled Lepidopteran species during breeding seasons. Train staff and contractors to recognize native plants and noxious and invasive weeds to reduce unintended damage to nontarget plants. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low Co st Low Medium I, G G Medium I, G High I, G G High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-19 Herbicides Herbicides Direct herbicide applications to undesirable plants to avoid harming nontarget species (e.g., spot‐treatment applications with a backpack sprayer, targeted applications to cut stems) . Avoid herbicide sprays when weather conditions increase drift (e.g., avoid wind speeds >15 mph; avoid applications during a temperature inversion)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-20 Herbicides Herbicides If necessary (e.g., if the seed bank was depleted of desirable species) , replant areas that have been treated with herbicides to remove dense infestations of undesirable vegetation with desirable, competitive, low‐growing plant species to reduce the need to re‐treat the area. When feasible, hand pull or use another mechanical control strategy if in an area where herbicide use might result in impacts on imperiled species. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low Co st Low Medium I, G Medium High High I G I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Herbicides Herbicides Use selective herbicides whenever possible to reduce damage to nontarget plants. Apply herbicides during plant life stages when weeds are most vulnerable (e.g., before blooming or before going to seed)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-21 Herbicides Herbicides Whenever possible, prevent conditions that would allow incompatible vegetation or noxious and invasive species to establish or reestablish. Train staff and contractors to recognize and avoid applications to key host plants for target imperiled butterflies and moths or key nectar plants for bumble bees. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low Co st Low Medium I, G G Medium I G High High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Mechanical Weed and Brush Removal Mechanical Weed and Brush Removal Mechanical Weed and Brush Removal Minimize soil disturbance (disking, tilling) during brush removal activities to avoid spreading invasive plants and destroying overwintering sites or nests. Time activities to avoid vulnerable times for focal species. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low I, G Co st Low Medium Medium High High I G I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-22 Mechanical Weed and Brush Removal Mechanical Weed and Brush Removal Feather or soften forest edges adjacent to clear zones to create a transitional area between the forest and grass (e.g., thin portions of the forest canopy along the edge next to grassy areas, removing undesirable or unhealthy trees) . Leave snags or trees with cavities in areas where they are set back from the road and pose no safety risk. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low Co st Low I, G Medium I, G Medium High High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Revegetation Revegetation Revegetation Increase flowering plant diversity in all plantings. Prioritize native plants in all plantings (revegetated and landscape)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-23 Revegetation Revegetation Increase host plants in revegetation plantings. Interseed host plants into existing roadside vegetation. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low I, G Co st Low Medium I, G Medium I, G G High I G High I, G G I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community Revegetation Revegetation When possible, salvage native plants at construction site for replanting. Control weeds to reduce weed competition and allow native seedlings to grow in the first and second years after planting. Prevent weeds from going to seed. Benefit Benefit High Medium Low High Medium Low Co st Low Co st Low I, G Medium Medium I, G High I G High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-24 Training/Education Training/Education Provide training for staff for education about why the transportation agency takes conservation actions for pollinators. Benefit High Medium Low Co st Low I, G I, G Medium I, G I, G High I= Benefits to imperiled species; G= Benefits to general pollinator community
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-25 Table 10-2. Value of benefits to pollinators of potential conservation actions to be implemented by DOTs.
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-26 Conservation actions Benefits to general pollinator community Benefits to imperiled species Direct herbicide applications to undesirable plants to avoid harming nontarget species (e.g., spot treatment applications with a backpack sprayer, targeted applications to cut stems, etc.) High High Apply herbicides during plant life stages when weeds are most vulnerable (e.g., before blooming or before going to seed)
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-27 Conservation actions Benefits to general pollinator community Benefits to imperiled species Revegetation Prioritize native plants in all plantings (revegetation and urban landscaping) High High Increase flowering plant diversity in all plantings High High Increase host plants in revegetation plantings High High Control weeds to reduce competition while allowing native seedlings to grow -- this is critical in the first and second years after planting -- and weeds should also be prevented from going to seed High High Interseed host plants into existing roadside vegetation Medium/High High Weed control prior to planting High High When possible, salvage native plants at the construction site for replanting Medium High Training/Education Provide training for staff for education about why conservation actions are taken by the transportation agency for pollinators Medium/High Medium/High
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-28 Worksheet for Triple Bottom Line Cost-Benefit Tool De fin e Describe the project area Describe the landscape context Describe the intended outcome Define and describe the timeframe for analysis
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-29 Ev al ua te Strength of Factor Environmental High Medium Low Societal High Medium Low Economic High Medium Low
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Chapter 10. Cost‐Benefit Considerations for Pollinator Management on Roadsides 10-30 De cid e Rationale for Decision: List in order of strength of factors Hi gh Environmental Societal Economic M ed iu m Lo w
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11-1 Chapter 11 Communication Support 11.1 Introduction Outreach and communication are important parts of the process when taking action for pollinator conservation. Many of the actions necessary to protect pollinators may involve increased up-front costs, such as using locally or regionally sourced native plants in revegetation projects, or require cultural changes in planning or maintenance activities, such as reduced mowing frequency.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-2 11.1.1 What is in this Toolkit? This toolkit contains a variety of resources for communicating with the public and with DOT staff members.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-3 showcase to the public an established planting along a roadside or at a highly visible area such as a rest area (Figure 11-2)
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-4 Figure 11-3. This educational sign is next to a display garden created by the Missouri DOT at the Missouri State Fairgrounds. 11.2.2 Websites Some DOTs have created web pages on their websites that specifically address pollinators and pollinator-related issues.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-5 Figure 11-4. Many states offer specialty license plates that highlight pollinators or native wildflowers.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-6 Note: Guides are available on the following websites: – https://iowadot.gov/lrtf – https://viz.wspis.com/flipbooks/tdot_pollinator_guide/ Figure 11-5. These guides, created by the Iowa and Tennessee DOTs, highlight pollinators as well as the work that the DOTs are doing to support them.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-7 Note: Posters are a great tool for sharing information with wide audiences, particularly with schools and land management agencies. Posters are available on the following website: https://iowadot.gov/lrtf Figure 11-7. These posters were created for the Iowa DOT as part of the Iowa Living Roadway Trust Fund and are available free on request to anyone in the state.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-8 11.2.7 Social Media Social media is an effective way to communicate with the public quickly about the work your DOT is doing to support pollinators. Social media can help draw attention to articles, meetings, new publications, interviews, podcasts, or demonstration sites or just generate interest in a DOT.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-9 Month Opportunities for Highlighting Pollinators and Their Habitat May Spring wildflowers and their importance for bees; National Wildflower Week, Endangered Species Day (May 19) , World Bee Day (May 20)
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-10 Why Are Pollinators Important? Pollinators are important to human health and well-being.
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11-11 Chapter 11. Communication Support primary sources of habitat; therefore, ensuring that roadsides have native plants that provide the resources pollinators need is highly beneficial. Roadsides can also be very important for increasing habitat connectivity.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-12 recognition of important native plants, updated noxious and invasive weed management techniques, and monitoring techniques for roadside vegetation and/or pollinators. Figure 11-8.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-13 Box 11-1. Roadside Landscape Design and Pollinator Conservation Course Welcome, Introductions, Overview of the Day Module 1.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-14 11.3.2 Partnerships State or federal agencies, as well as local, regional, or national organizations, can be excellent partners for outreach to the general public as well as internal communications (see Box 11-2)
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-15 Table 11-3. Potential partners in communicating with the public regarding revegetation projects or training and educational collaborations on vegetation management techniques.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-16 Potential Partner Organization/Agency Description Midwest Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies Regional working group in the Midwest that has taken a leadership role in monarch conservation Non‐Government Organizations with Expertise Pertaining to Outreach about Natural Heritage State master naturalists Groups that provide naturalist training for volunteers who are eager to make a difference State natural heritage foundations or commissions Organizations devoted to protecting land and wildlife State biological surveys Some states have divisions that are devoted to monitoring biological diversity; these can provide detailed information about the locations of habitat or particularly important diverse lands Non‐Government Organizations with Expertise Pertaining to Native Plants Native plant societies State or local groups that focus on native plants, restoration, and ecosystem health: https://nanps.org/native‐plant‐societies/ Wild Ones National nonprofit organization with local chapters that focus on native plants and landscaping: https://wildones.org/ Natural Areas Association National nonprofit organization that provides support to a community of natural area managers: https://naturalareas.org/ Non‐Government Organizations with Expertise Pertaining to Native Plant Establishment The Nature Conservancy Nonprofit that focuses on protecting and restoring land and water, often through partnerships: https://www.nature.org/en‐us/ Pheasants Forever/Quail Forever Nonprofit organizations that focus on creating and maintaining habitat for game birds: https://www.pheasantsforever.org/ https://quailforever.org/ Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Nonprofit that works to support invertebrates and the important roles they play; has significant expertise in habitat establishment and restoration to support pollinators: https://xerces.org/
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-17 Potential Partner Organization/Agency Description Grassland Restoration Network An association of projects with staff members who work on restoration in a variety of grassland ecosystems. They share knowledge and information about grassland restoration. Non‐Government Organizations with Expertise on Pollinators Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Nonprofit that works to support invertebrates and the important roles they play; has the largest pollinator conservation team in the world and many relevant resources: https://xerces.org/ Pollinator Partnership Nonprofit known for spearheading Pollinator Week: https://www.pollinator.org/ Monarch Joint Venture A partnership of federal and state agencies, nongovernmental organizations, businesses, and academic programs that work to protect monarchs: https://monarchjointventure.org/ Non‐Government Organizations with Expertise Pertaining to Small Wildlife Species that Use Roadside Habitat National and state Audubon Society chapters Nonprofit organization that works to protect birds: https://www.audubon.org/ Local Wildlife Society chapters Nonprofit organization that provides support for wildlife professionals; local chapters have a regional focus: https://wildlife.org/ In addition to national or statewide agencies or organizations, local groups that have a wide reach may be potential collaborators.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-18 Some steps that Scott Lucas suggests for success include: Know what senior leadership is interested in and find out what motivates them. Some possibilities include eco-credits, financial gain, recognition, and aesthetics.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-19 United States looked at long-term data as well as community science data and found a long-term decline in butterfly abundance amounting to 1.6 percent per year over the last 40 years (Forister et al.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-20 sequestration within roadside habitat in Florida at $39 million per year; that number could increase with the sale of carbon credits. Other more recent studies suggest that natural climate solutions alone could provide one-third of the climate mitigation required to keep warming below 2°C (3.6°F)
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-21 disturbance is important for maintaining plant diversity. For example, periodic disturbances in grasslands can prevent encroachment by woody plants.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-22 actually reduce pollinator mortality rather than lure pollinators to their death by vehicle. This is because the pollinators stay on the roadsides rather than going off in search of flowers for nectar or pollen.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-23 Experiment with vegetation management techniques; learn from local land managers and peers in surrounding states. Provide training for staff members so they stay up to speed on new management techniques and plant identification and understand how these measures fit into the goals of the DOT and why they are important.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-24 11.4.3 Videos The Pollinator Habitat Conservation along Roadways video for use in outreach with the public is available on the National Academies Press website (https://nap.nationalacademies.org/)
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-25 11.5 Case Studies 11.5.1 Volunteers Help Grow the Colorado Pollinator Highway Recognizing the role that roadsides play in supporting pollinators, the Colorado State Legislature unanimously passed legislation in 2017 that established Interstate 76 as the Colorado Pollinator Highway. The Colorado DOT then launched a pilot project along Interstate 76 near Julesburg, Colorado, with goals to establish native pollinator plants along rights-of-way, improve weed management practices, and increase public awareness of pollinator habitat and connectivity.
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Chapter 11. Communication Support 11-26 collectively spent thousands of hours controlling invasive plants and managing the site for biodiversity. Blueberry Hill is also home to the endangered rusty-patched bumble bee.
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12-1 Chapter 12 Conclusion A diverse community of pollinators is important for sustaining wild plant communities and the wildlife that depends on those plants. This diversity is also critical for crop pollination and production of the many foods that provide crucial nutrients for human wellbeing.
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ACRO-1 Acronyms and Abbreviations Term Definition Btk Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki CCA Candidate Conservation Agreement CCAA Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances CFR Code of Federal Regulations CO2 carbon dioxide DOT department of transportation EA environmental assessment EIS environmental impact statement ESA Endangered Species Act FAQs frequently asked questions FAST Fixing America's Surface Transportation FHWA Federal Highway Administration HCP Habitat Conservation Plan IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IRVM Integrated Roadside Vegetation Management IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IVM Integrated Vegetation Management MSHCP Multi‐Species Habitat Conservation Plan NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service NYSDOT New York State Department of Transportation OFWO Oregon Fish and Wildlife Office OPHI Ohio Pollinator Habitat Initiative PCA Prelisting Conservation Agreement RCA Riverside County Regional Conservation Authority RCS Recovery Crediting System ROW right‐of‐way SHA Safe Harbor Agreement SMA Special Management Area the Services U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service WSDOT Washington State Department of Transportation WV Refuge Complex Willamette Valley National Wildlife Refuge Complex
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G-1 Glossary This glossary defines terms used throughout this guide. Term Definitions Action Area Under Endangered Species Act Section 7 consultation, all areas to be affected directly or indirectly by a federal action and not merely the immediate area involved in the action. See also consultation. adaptive management Using the results of new information gathered through a monitoring program to adjust management strategies and practices to help provide for the conservation of species and their habitats. alkaline soil A type of soil with high amounts of calcium, sodium, and magnesium, with a pH level above 7. apiary A place where honey bees are kept for commercial, hobby, or educational purposes; a collection of honey beehives. areas of high conservation value Areas determined to have both high biological value and high landscape intactness; prioritized for conservation actions. biodiversity The full array of living things considered at all levels, from genetic variants of a single species to arrays of species and arrays of genera, families, and higher taxonomic levels; includes natural communities and ecosystems. bivoltine Having two generations (broods)
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Glossary G-2 Term Definitions climate change Long‐term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, caused by human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. climate change vulnerability Refers to the degree to which an ecological system, natural community, habitat, or individual species is likely to be adversely affected as a result of changes in climate and is often dependent on factors such as exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. climate resiliency The ability of species to adapt to and withstand changes in climate; biodiversity assists species in persisting over time as climate changes. cocoon The pupal stage of moths (and some other holometabolous insects) within which they complete metamorphosis; typically found hanging from a surface or buried underground or in leaf litter. colony Large community of individual bees living together as one social unit; typically includes workers, males, and a queen. coloration The colors, patterns, and general appearance used to identify species. community See natural community. compensatory mitigation Actions taken to fulfill, in whole or in part, mitigation requirements under state or federal law or a court mandate. congener A member of the same taxonomic genus as another plant or animal. conservation The use of habitat and other natural resources in ways such that they may remain viable for future generations. This includes permanent protection of such resources. conservation action/measure An action that, when implemented, would protect or restore and manage natural elements, including imperiled species and their habitats, natural communities, ecological processes, and wildlife corridors. conservation bank Permanently protected privately or publicly owned lands managed for endangered, threatened, and other at‐risk species. May include habitat restoration or creation in addition to protecting occupied habitats. See mitigation bank. conservation easement A voluntary legal agreement between a landowner and a land trust or government agency that permanently limits the uses of the land in order to protect its conservation values. conservation status The current status of the species as either listed in, a candidate for listing in, or petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act or as imperiled without formal legal protection. conservation strategy Conservation actions or habitat enhancement actions that, if implemented, will sustain and restore species and their habitats, natural communities, biodiversity, habitat connectivity, ecosystem functions, water resources, and other natural resources. consultation A process between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or National Marine Fisheries Service and a federal agency or applicant that: (1)
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Glossary G-3 Term Definitions creation (of natural community or species' habitat) The creation of a specified resource condition where none existed before. See establishment. critical habitat Habitat designated as critical1 refers to specific areas occupied by a federally listed species at the time it is listed, and that are essential to the conservation of the species and that may require special management considerations or protection. Critical habitat also includes specific areas outside occupied habitat into which the species could spread and that are considered essential for recovery of the species. crop pest Includes seed eaters, herbivores, frugivores, and pathogens (e.g., insects, fungi, bacteria, and viruses)
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Glossary G-4 Term Definitions ecosystem A natural unit defined by both its living and nonliving components; a balanced system of the exchange of nutrients and energy. See habitat. ecosystem function The ecosystem processes involving interactions among physical, chemical, and biological components, such as dynamic river meander, floodplain dynamism, tidal flux, bank erosion, and other processes necessary to sustain the ecosystem and the species that depend on it. ecosystem services The beneficial outcomes to humans from ecosystem functions such as supplying of oxygen; sequestering of carbon; moderating climate change effects; supporting the food chain; harvesting of animals or plants; providing clean water; recharging groundwater; abating storm, fire, and flood damage; pollinating and fertilizing for agriculture; and providing scenic views. ecotone, ecotonal A region of transition between two biological communities or habitats. encroach, encroachment The natural phenomenon characterized by the increase in density of certain types of plants, bushes, or shrubs at the expense of the herbaceous layer. endangered A species that has become so rare it is in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Endangered Species Act (ESA) Federal law enacted in 1973 to prohibit the import, export, or taking of fish, wildlife, and plants listed as threatened or endangered species; provide for adding species to and removing them from the list of threatened and endangered species and for preparing and implementing plans for their recovery; provide for interagency cooperation to avoid take of listed species and for issuing permits for otherwise prohibited activities; provide for cooperation with state governments, including authorization of financial assistance; and implement the provisions of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. endemic A species, subspecies, or variety found only in a specified geographic region. enhancement A manipulation of an ecological resource or natural resource that improves a specific ecosystem function. An enhancement does not result in a gain in protected or conserved land, but it does result in an improvement in ecological or ecosystem function. enhancement‐of‐survival permit Available under Section 10 of the ESA for entities whose activities will provide a net conservation benefit to listed or candidate species. erosion (of soil)
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Glossary G-5 Term Definitions extirpation The situation in which a species or population no longer exists within a certain geographic area, while at least one other population of the species still persists in other areas; also known as local extinction. eyespot A rounded, eye‐like marking on the wing of a butterfly or moth. federal nexus When a project requires a federal authorization apart from ESA compliance, license, or funding. fire regime The pattern, frequency, and intensity of the wildfires that prevail in an area over long periods of time; an integral part of fire ecology and renewal for certain types of ecosystems. fire return interval The average period between fires, both natural and prescribed, under the historical fire regime. flight time The month or months of the year in which adult pollinators are observed in flight. focal species In this guide, sensitive pollinators that are of particular conservation concern, such as monarch butterflies or other imperiled species. food web The overall food relationships (food chains) among organisms in a particular environment, detailing the interconnectivity in complex feeding relationships for that ecosystem. All the food chains in a single ecosystem represent the multiple possible paths that energy and nutrients may take as they move through the ecosystem. foraging territory The distance or area over which an individual of a species is known to travel to find food resources, as reported in agency reports or peer‐ reviewed literature for that species. forb An herbaceous flowering plant other than a grass, sedge, or rush. forewing The anterior (front, closer to the head)
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Glossary G-6 Term Definitions habitat conservation plan (HCP) A planning document that is required as part of an application for an incidental take permit under the ESA. HCPs provide for partnerships with non‐federal parties to conserve the ecosystems upon which listed species depend, ultimately contributing to their recovery. HCPs describe the anticipated effects of the proposed taking, how those impacts will be minimized or mitigated, and how the HCP is to be funded. habitat degradation When habitat conditions decline due to invasive species, pollution, development, or overutilization of natural resources. habitat enhancement Actions that, when implemented, are intended to improve the quality of wildlife habitat or to address risks or stressors to wildlife. Habitat enhancement would have long‐term durability but would not involve acquiring land or permanently protecting habitat. habitat fragmentation When larger habitats are broken up into smaller patches, which may be too small to sustain populations of some species or species are unable to move between patches. habitat loss When habitat is eliminated or transformed into another type of habitat. habitat needs/requirements In this guide, conditions that must be present in order for pollinator species to inhabit and thrive in their surroundings, including climate, vegetation, associated species, and natural processes. habitat quality The capacity of a habitat to support a species. The precise meaning of habitat quality varies by species and depends on the specific needs of a species in the context of a particular area. High‐quality habitat for species may have only foraging and resting elements or it may include foraging, resting, and nesting elements. For other species, it may encompass all elements needed for the species to complete its lifecycle. Low‐quality habitat has only the minimal elements to support occurrence of the species. High‐quality habitat tends to support larger numbers of species than low‐quality habitat. harass As defined by the ESA, actions that create the likelihood of injury to listed species to such an extent as to significantly disrupt normal behavior patterns, which include, but are not limited to, breeding, feeding, or sheltering. harm As defined by the ESA, includes significant habitat modification or degradation that results in death or injury to listed species by significantly impairing behavioral patterns, such as breeding, feeding, or sheltering. herbaceous Vascular plants with little or no persistent woody stems above ground; includes grasses and forbs. herbicide A substance that is toxic to plants, used to destroy unwanted vegetation. hindwing The posterior (back)
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Glossary G-7 Term Definitions host plant Plants upon which butterflies and moths lay their eggs, and upon which their caterpillars (larvae) will feed after hatching. hydrologic regime The timing, volume, and duration of water flow events, which may be influenced by the climate, soils, geology, groundwater, watershed land cover, connectivity, and valley and stream morphology. imperiled species A species that is in decline and may be in danger of extinction. In this guide, this term identifies species that are not legally protected under the ESA. incidental take permit A permit issued under Section 10 of the ESA to private, non‐federal entities undertaking otherwise lawful projects that might result in the take of a listed species. See also take. indicator species A species whose presence, absence, or abundance reflects a particular habitat, community, or set of environmental conditions.4 infiltration (of water)
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Glossary G-8 Term Definitions listed species Species currently listed as threatened or endangered under the ESA; the species has been determined to be in danger of extinction in the near or foreseeable future by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. managed bees Bees that are bred and managed by people for commercial purposes. For example, honey bees kept for honey production or rental for commercial crop pollination; can harm other wild pollinators through increased competition for nectar and pollen resources and spread of disease. mesic Containing a moderate or well‐balanced supply of moisture. microclimate The atmospheric conditions of a very small or restricted area that differ from those in the surrounding areas. migration The mass movement of individuals among areas, generally directional and synchronized; see also dispersal. mitigate, mitigation To lessen the effects of an action, particularly adverse effects, on a species or habitat. mitigation bank Land managed for its natural resource values, with an emphasis on targeted resources. Typically requires the restoration or creation of aquatic resources. See conservation bank. monitoring Data collected from repeated sampling to detect changes over time, such as in response to revegetation or maintenance practices. monitoring protocols The methodology used to collect data. This guide contains protocols for monitoring imperiled pollinators, imperiled species of pollinators, and bumble bees. monoculture The cultivation of a single crop in a given area. morphology The form and structure of living organisms. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) The national environmental law that promotes the enhancement of the environment by requiring federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions prior to making decisions and to incorporate environmental considerations in their planning and decision‐making through a systematic interdisciplinary approach by preparing detailed statements assessing the environmental impact of major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. native species A species whose presence in a given region or ecosystem is the result of only natural evolution and distribution. natural community A group of organisms living together and linked together by their effects on one another and their responses to the environment they share.6 A general term often used synonymously with habitat or vegetation type. natural resources Biological and ecological resources including species and their habitats, including waters of the state, waters of the United States, wetlands, and natural communities. 6 Sawyer, J
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Glossary G-9 Term Definitions NatureServe A non‐profit organization comprising a network of conservation scientists that collects, aggregates, and standardizes data about the status and distribution of species and ecosystems of conservation concern in North America and assigns its own conservation rankings to such species. NEPA Assignment The process by which some states (Alaska, Arizona, California, Florida, Nebraska, Ohio, Texas, and Utah as of April 2022) assume federal responsibility for transportation projects for the Federal Highway Administration. States with NEPA Assignment may use the Section 7 ESA compliance process even when no other federal nexus exists. nest Places constructed and provisioned by bees and wasps in which their offspring develop; can be on the ground, in soil, underground, in tunnels, or in insulated cavities. nocturnal Active during the nighttime. nonnative species Any species introduced after European contact and as a direct or indirect result of human activity to a new place or new habitat where it did not previously occur.7 See invasive species. noxious plant A plant that can directly or indirectly injure or cause damage to crops, livestock, poultry, or other interests of agriculture, irrigation, navigation, the natural resources of the United States, the public health, or the environment. The U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service maintains a list of federally recognized noxious weeds, and each state also has its own list. objective, conservation objective A concise, measurable statement of what is to be achieved and that supports a conservation goal. The objective should be based on the best available scientific information to conserve the species or other conservation elements for which the conservation goal and objective is developed. obligate Restricted to a particular condition of life, such as dependent on a particular habitat or forage. overwinter The process by which some organisms pass through or wait out the winter season, when conditions make normal activity or survival difficult or near impossible. oviposit, oviposition To lay an egg or eggs. parasite An organism that lives in or on a host but does not kill the host. parasitoid An organism that lives on or inside a host and always kills the host. pathogen A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. perennial Lasting or existing for a long time (in plants, more than 2 years)
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Glossary G-10 Term Definitions phenology The timing of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomenon, such as when plants bloom and when insects emerge from pupal stages. pollinator An animal that helps carry pollen, either intentionally or accidentally, from the male part of the flower (stamen) to the female part of the same or another flower (stigma)
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Glossary G-11 Term Definitions recovery The process by which the decline of an endangered or threatened species is halted or reversed or threats to its survival are neutralized, so that its long‐term survival in nature can be ensured.8 Recovery entails actions to achieve the conservation and survival of a species, including actions to prevent any further decline of a population's viability and genetic integrity. Recovery also includes actions to restore or establish environmental conditions that enable a species to persist (i.e., the long‐term occurrence of a species through the full range of environmental variation) . recovery area The band of low‐growing or routinely mowed vegetation directly adjacent to the pavement or shoulder of a road where vehicles that have left the roadway can recover; also known as the clear or safety zone. The recovery area is free of obstruction and the width is determined by the type of road and traffic volume, as well as the slope of the embankment. Recovery Crediting System A tool that allows federal agencies to use their authorities to benefit species already listed as threatened or endangered on non‐federal lands; subject to consultation under Section 7 of the ESA. Creates a process through which federal agencies create a "bank" of recovery credits providing for the conservation of listed species while being able to compensate for future impacts of their actions refugia Locations or areas providing a safe resting place for animals to hide from predators. restore, restoration Manipulation of a piece of land with the goal of repairing natural or historical ecosystem functions to degraded habitat or natural resources. This results in an improvement in ecological or ecosystem functions, but it does not result in a gain in area. revegetation The process of replanting and rebuilding the soil of disturbed lands such as roadsides. This may be a natural process produced by plant colonization and succession, human‐made rewilding projects, or accelerated processes designed to repair damage to a landscape due to construction or operational disturbance, wildfire, mining, flood, or other cause. riparian Relating to wetlands adjacent to rivers and streams. roadside Areas along the sides of roads and highways extending across both urban and rural landscapes; often the only natural vegetation that remains in highly altered landscapes. Roadsides provide pollinators with a place to find food, reproduce, and take shelter or overwinter, and they can increase habitat connectivity. roadside contamination Deposit of pollutants through routine vehicle use and maintenance, including vehicle exhaust, de‐icing materials, and heavy metals from tire rubber, brake dust, and gasoline and diesel combustion products. roadside management/ maintenance The planning, design, construction, and maintenance of the non‐paved highway right‐of‐way. roadside restoration See restoration, revegetation. 8 U.S.
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Glossary G-12 Term Definitions runoff (of water) The draining away of water from the surface of an area of land; can be problematic when it occurs as a result of excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other water no longer infiltrating (soak)
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Glossary G-13 Term Definitions threat An anthropogenic (human‐induced) or natural driver that could result in changing the ecological conditions of the species or its habitat in a negative way. threatened Plants and animals that are likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges. transportation planning The process of identifying transportation needs and establishing plans for infrastructure development to meet those needs; occurs at the local, regional, and state levels and generally includes identifying and prioritizing projects needed to maintain and improve transportation networks and achieve specific transportation goals. Can involve either short‐ (e.g., 4 years)
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R-1 References and Other Resources Ahern, J., C. A. Niedner, and A. Barker. 1992. Roadside Wildflower Meadows: Summary of Benefits and Guidelines to Successful Establishment and Management. Transportation Research Record, No. 1334:46–53. Alcock, J., L. P. Brower, and E. H. Williams, Jr. 2016. "Monarch butterflies use regenerating milkweeds for reproduction in mowed hayfields in northern Virginia." The Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 70(3) :177–181. Allen‐Wardell, G., P. Bernhardt, R. Bitner, A. Burquez, S. Buchmann, J. Cane, P. A. Cox, V. Dalton, P. Feinsinger, M. Ingram, and D. Inouye. 1998. "The potential consequences of pollinator declines on the conservation of biodiversity and stability of food crop yields." Conservation Biology 12(1)
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References and Other Resources R-2 Barnum, S. A., and G. Alt. 2013. The Effect of Reduced Roadside Mowing on Rate of Deer‐Vehicle Collisions. Transportation Research Board 92nd Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers. Baron, G. L., N. E. Raine, and M. J. Brown. 2014. "Impact of chronic exposure to a pyrethroid pesticide on bumblebees and interactions with a trypanosome parasite." Journal of Applied Ecology 51(2) :460–469. Bartel, R. A., N. M. Haddad, and J. P. Wright. 2010. "Ecosystem Engineers Maintain a Rare Species of Butterfly and Increase Plant Diversity." Oikos 119:883–890. Battisti, L., M. Potrich, A. R. Sampaio, N. de Castilhos Ghisi, F. M. Costa‐Maia, R. Abati, C. B. Dos Reis Martinez, and S. H. Sofia. 2021. Is glyphosate toxic to bees?
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References and Other Resources R-3 Black, S. H. 2012. "Insect conservation and the endangered species act: A history." In Insect Conservation: Past, Present and Prospects (pp. 171–189) . Springer, Dordrecht. Black, S. H., and D. M. Vaughan. 2005. Species Profile: Euphilotes battoides allyni. In Shepherd, M. D., D. M. Vaughan, and S. H. Black (Eds)
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References and Other Resources R-4 Britten, H. B., and J. W. Glasford. 2002. "Genetic population structure of the Dakota skipper (Lepidoptera: Hesperia dacotae) : A North American native prairie obligate." Conservation Genetics 3:363–374. Britton, H., and L. Riley. 1994. "Nectar source diversity as an indicator of habitat suitability for the endangered Uncompahgre fritillary Boloria acrocnema Nymphalidae." Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 48:173– 179. Brock, J. P., and K. Kaufman. 2003. Kaufman Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. 392 pp. Brown, D. L., J. Laird, W. Sommers, and A. Hamilton. 1999. "Methods used by the Arizona Department of Transportation to reduce wildlife mortality and improve highway safety." In International Conference of Wildlife Ecology and Transportation, Florida. Brown, J. J. 1987. "Toxicity of herbicides thiobencarb and endothall when fed to laboratory‐reared Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
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References and Other Resources R-5 Calhoun, J. V. 1995. "The biogeography and ecology of Euphyes dukesi (Hesperiidae) in Florida." Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 29(1)
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References and Other Resources R-6 Center for Biological Diversity. 2010. Petition to list 404 aquatic, riparian and wetlands species from the Southeastern United States as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Center for Biological Diversity. 2018. Petition to list the Mojave poppy bee (Perdita meconis) under the Endangered Species Act and concurrently designate critical habitat. Center for Biological Diversity. 2019. Petition to list the Gulf Coast solitary bee (Hesperapis oraria)
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References and Other Resources R-7 Daly, H. V., and K. N. Magnacca. 2003. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 17. Hawaiian Hylaeus (Nesoprosopis) Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)
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References and Other Resources R-8 Ehrlich, P. R., and I. Hanski, eds. 2004. On the wings of checkerspots: a model system for population biology. Oxford University Press. Eilers, E. J., C. Kremen, S. S. Greenleaf, A. K. Garber, and A. M. Klein. 2011. "Contribution of pollinator‐ mediated crops to nutrients in the human food supply." PLOS ONE 6(6) :e21363. Elkington, J. 2018. "25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase ‘Triple Bottom Line.' Here's Why It's Time to Rethink It." Harvard Business Review Online. Available: https://hbr.org/2018/06/25‐years‐ago‐i‐coined‐the‐phrase‐ triple‐bottom‐line‐heres‐why‐im‐giving‐up‐on‐it. Elliott, C. H. 2019. The Riddle of the Sphinx: Population ecology of the endangered Blackburn's sphinx moth, Manduca blackburni (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)
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References and Other Resources R-9 Falk, A. D., T. E. Fulbright, F. S. Smith, L. A. Brennan, A. J. Ortega‐Santos, and S. Benn. 2013. "Does Seeding a Locally Adapted Native Mixture Inhibit Ingress by Exotic Plants? " Restoration Ecology 21(4)
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References and Other Resources R-43 Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of Florida. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of Iowa and Minnesota. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of Kansas and Missouri. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of Oklahoma and Texas. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of the Great Lakes. Xerces Society, Portland, OR Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of the Mid‐ Atlantic. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of the Northeast. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019. Roadside habitat for monarchs: Milkweeds of the Southeast. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Florida. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Mid‐Atlantic. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Midwest. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Northeast. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Southeast. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch nectar plants: Southern Plains. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society. 2017. Protecting California's Butterfly Groves: Management Guidelines for Monarch Butterfly Overwintering Habitat. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Available: https://xerces.org/sites/default/files/2018‐05/17‐040_01_ProtectingCaliforniaButterflyGroves.pdf. Xerces Society. 2018. Managing for monarchs in the west: best management practices for conserving the monarch butterfly and its habitat. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, Portland, OR. Available: www.xerces.org. Yang, Y., D. Tilman, G. Furey, C. Lehman. 2019. "Soil carbon sequestration accelerated by restoration of grassland biodiversity." Nature Communications 10. Zalucki, M. P., A. R. Clarke, and S. B. Malcolm. 2002. Ecology and behavior of first instar larval Lepidoptera. Annual Review of Entomology 47:361–393. Zielin, S. B., and Portland State University. Department of Environmental Science and Management. 2010. Exploring Mitigation Options to Reduce Vehicle‐caused Mortality for the Oregon Silverspot Butterfly, Speyeria zerene hippolyta, along Highway 101 at the Siuslaw National Forest.
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References and Other Resources R-44 Zimmerman, E. C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii: a manual of the insects of the Hawaiian Islands, including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin, distribution, hosts, parasites, etc. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI. 222 pp. Zimmerman, E. C. 1958. Insects of Hawaii, Volume 7, Macrolepidoptera. Honolulu, Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press. 549 pp. Ziska, L. H., J. S. Pettis, J. Edwards, J. E. Hancock, M. B. Tomecek, A. Clark, J. S. Dukes, I. Loladze, and H. Wayne Polley. 2016. Rising Atmospheric CO2 is Reducing the Protein Concentration of a Floral Pollen Source Essential for North American Bees. Proc. R. Soc. B 283:20160414. Zuefle, M. E., W. P. Brown, and D. W. Tallamy. 2008. "Effects of non‐native plants on native insect community of Delaware." Biological Invasions 10:1159–1169.
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A-1 Appendix A Decision Support for Compliance with the Endangered Species Act: Listed Pollinators If there is a listed pollinator species in the area that will impact a project or general work, the questions below can help in developing proactive strategies as alternatives to the more traditional Section 7 consultation when dealing with listed species. Select as many questions as apply.
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Appendix A. Decision Support for Compliance with the Endangered Species Act: Listed Pollinators A-2 Go Further: HCPs are the most comprehensive compliance strategy available to nonfederal parties to conserve the ecosystems and natural processes upon which listed species depend, ultimately contributing to their recovery. HCPs can apply to both listed and non-listed species, including those that are candidates or have been proposed for listing.
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Appendix A. Decision Support for Compliance with the Endangered Species Act: Listed Pollinators A-3 agencies are successful or not in benefiting listed species through their actions, they will not be penalized. Go Further: Recognized conservation actions benefiting listed species under a SHA include development and testing of new habitat management techniques.
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B-1 Appendix B Decision Support for Voluntary Actions and Regulatory Assurances: Imperiled Pollinators and the Endangered Species Act If there is an imperiled pollinator species in the area that may become listed, the questions below can help in developing voluntary strategies to mitigate present-day and future risks to at-risk species and regulatory assurances. Select as many questions as apply.
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Appendix B. Decision Support for Voluntary Actions and Regulatory Assurances: Imperiled Pollinators and the Endangered Species Act B-2 Are there federal lands neighboring present-day rights-of-way or future project areas containing recognized habitat for at-risk species of interest? If so, consider reaching out to neighboring federal agencies to explore the possibility of linking a CCAA with a Candidate Conservation Agreement (CCA)
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C-1 Appendix C Bee and Bee Group Recognition C.1 Recognizing Bees Distinguishing floral visitors such as butterflies, beetles, and moths from bees is fairly straightforward, but separating bees from wasps or flies can be more difficult (Figure C-1 and Table C-1)
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-2 Table C-1. Key characteristics of bees, and the flies and wasps that can be mistaken for them.
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-3 C.2 Recognizing Bee Groups Bees are difficult to identify to species or family without having pinned specimens. But bee richness at a site can be measured by identifying bees to groups based on their morphology (also known as morphogroups)
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-4 C.2.2 Chap Leg Bees Key Characteristics (Figure C-3) : Size and shape: Medium to large, robust Color and hair: Dark with white, yellow, or brown hairs; often hairy -- especially on thorax -- with short, dense, velvety hair Stripes: Often with bands of pale hair on abdomen Scopa: Carries dry pollen on noticeably longer, dense hairs on lower hind legs, but pollen is often on the whole body Notes: Antennae are typically longer than most other bees, especially on males.
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-5 C.2.4 Green Sweat Bees Key Characteristics (Figure C-5) : Size and shape: Medium sized, narrow bodied Color and hair: Bright metallic green; abdomen can be green like the thorax, or dark with stripes; body covered in pale hairs that are less noticeable Stripes: Some have yellow-and-black striped abdomens Scopa: Carries dry pollen on hairs on hind legs, less noticeable than other bees unless covered in dry pollen Notes: Relatively fast flying and numerous.
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-6 C.2.6 Tiny Dark Bees Key Characteristics (Figure C-7) : Size and shape: Tiny and narrow bodied Color and hair: Can be dull black/brown, pale golden, metallic black/brown or blue/green; sometimes with white or yellow markings on face; body sparsely covered in pale hairs that are less noticeable, but some with dense patches of hair on abdomen Stripes: Faint stripes on abdomen, if any Scopa: Small carpenter bees (Ceratina)
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Appendix C. Bee and Bee Group Recognition C-7 C.2.8 Metallic Hairy Belly Bees Key Characteristics (Figure C-9) : Size and shape: Small to medium, stout, robust bodies Color and hair: Metallic green, blue, or bluish black; brushes of hair beneath abdomen -- no prominent hair bands Stripes: None Scopa: Females carry dry pollen loads on underside of abdomen Notes: Among the first bees seen during the pollinating season.
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D-1 Appendix D Butterfly and Butterfly Group Recognition D.1 Recognizing Butterflies Butterflies can be distinguished from moths by the way they hold their wings at rest and by their antennae. Butterflies hold their wings open or vertically closed over their bodies, while moths tend to hold their wings flat.
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Appendix D. Butterfly and Butterfly Group Recognition D-2 D.2.2 Swallowtails Key Characteristics (Figure D-2) : Large butterflies Swift, sailing flight pattern Unhooked antenna Less wing loading, allowing them to soar Can possess hind wing extensions (tails)
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Appendix D. Butterfly and Butterfly Group Recognition D-3 D.2.4 Gossamer-Winged Key Characteristics (Figure D-4) : Many of the smallest and brightest butterflies Brightly colored (can shimmer in sunshine)
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E-1 Appendix E Bumble Bee Recognition and Photography E.1 Recognizing Bumble Bees Family: Apidae, Genus: Bombus E.1.1 Identification Size and shape: Medium to very large, robust (workers and males are smaller than queens) Color and hair: Mostly black with yellow, orange, or brown markings; entire body is fuzzy Stripes: Hair can form yellow, black, orange, or brown stripes or markings Pollen-carrying structures: Females have flattened plate on upper hind leg surrounded by long, stiff hairs (known as a corbicula)
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Appendix E. Bumble Bee Recognition and Photography E-2 E.2 Photographing Bumble Bees If photographing bumble bees while they are foraging, the following can be helpful: Wait at a group of flowers instead of following a bumble bee around Do not be afraid to get close to the bees when they are on flowers (they pose no risk of stinging while foraging unless one grabs their bodies) Use a camera with a macro setting; digital SLRs and point-and-shoots have the most flexibility with macro settings, but cameras in smartphones can be used if no other option is available Take photos from several different angles, aiming for shots that show the bee's back (dorsal view)
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