Understanding and Preventing Violence, Volume 4 Consequences and Control (1994) / Chapter Skim
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The Costs and Consequences of Violent Behavior in the United States
The Costs and Consequences of Violent Behavior in the United States
Pages 67-166
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From page 67... ...
At first glance, it might seem that enumerating the consequences of violent behavior is a straightforward task. Take the highly publicized murder of Carol Stuart Whose husband, Chuck, was later found to have been the murderers and her unborn child in Boston.i The direct consequences are obvious two deaths and enumerable medical costs associated with the interim treatment of both victims.
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From page 68... ...
lived to be charged with the murders, there would have been additional criminal justice-related costs. As difficult as it is, the task of enumerating the consequences of violent behavior is considerably easier than attempting to quantify {and monetize)
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From page 69... ...
Because most of the cost estimates cited in the past have been significant underestimates, more accurate estimates would better inform the policy debate Cohen, 1988a:538J. However, one cannot simply compare aggregate cost estimates of intentional injury with estimates of the cost of other social ills
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From page 70... ...
costs and benefits of various policy options designed to reduce crime for highway crashes J not just the aggregate costs of current social ills. If one is really interested in estimating the aggregate cost of intentional injury, the hypothetical question should be posed, "What would life be like without violence?
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From page 71... ...
Other criminal justice policy experiments include preventive police patrols and misdemeanor spouse arrest programs for domestic violence National Institute of Justice, 19881. One of the advantages of using dollars as a common metric for analyzing criminal victimizations is that we can compare the benefits of reduced victimization to the costs of the proposed policy.
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From page 72... ...
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ESTIMATING COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES Violent behavior imposes many types of costs on society. In determining conceptually whether or not to include an element as a cost, the operational criteria used throughout this paper is whether or not society would be better off in its absence.
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From page 73... ...
Monetary costs generally consist of out-of-pocket expenditures, such as medical treatment, property damage and Toss, and emergency police or ambulance response. They also consist of lost wages and productivity.
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From page 74... ...
Instead, it counts the monetary costs of death. This method is appropriate if one is interested solely in the effect of deaths on economic activity, as measured by the gross national product, and on household production.
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From page 75... ...
The social cost of this murder might be partially offset by the reduced cost of other future crimes the victim was likely to commit. That is, there might be an "incapacitative" effect of intentional injury {see Cohen, 1983, for a review of the incapacitation literature!
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From page 76... ...
. Fixed, Average, and Marginal Costs Although this paper attempts to enumerate and, where possible, monetize virtually all conceivable costs and consequences of violent behavior in the United States, the reader must be carefuT in using any estimates derived here.
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From page 77... ...
Reducing the need for a police investigation might not reduce police expenditures, but it will certainly free up valuable police resources that will be used for another purpose. Victim Assistance and Other Cost-Reducing Costs Some of the costs associated with violent behavior may actually be designed to reduce the cost of victimization.
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From page 78... ...
However, in the absence of these victim service agencies, the costs of victimization would be even higher because the pain and suffering endured by crime victims would increase. Thus, attributing the cost of victim service agencies to the cost of the victimization itself seems quite reasonable.
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From page 79... ...
The employer may even have higher expenses due to lost productivity or the need to hire temporary help or to pay overtime in the interim. Thus, the total "out-of-pocket" portion of injury costs is actually higher than the sum of property Tosses, medical costs, and lost wages.
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From page 80... ...
Charges not reimbursed by insurance {21 Charges reimbursed by insurance {31 Administrative overhead of insurance coverage {item 2i Victim services {1) Expenses charged to victim 21 Expenses paid by service agency {31 Temporary labor and training of replacements Lost workdays {1J Lost wages for unpaid workdays {21 Lost productivity for paid workdays Lost school days {11 Forgone wages due to lack of education {21 Forgone nonpecuniary benefits of education `31 Forgone social benefits due to lack of education Lost housework Pain and suffering/quality of life Loss of affection/enjoyment Death {1J Value of life {21 Funeral and burial expenses {3)
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From page 81... ...
In a few instances, victims of violent behavior for their families) may bring a private tort action against the party who injured the victim or against a third party for negligence E.g., an unfit parking Tot or insufficient hotel room security)
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From page 82... ...
These costs are summarized in Table 2. Violent behavior also has TABLE 2 Costs of Society's Response to Intentional Injury Cost Category Party That Directly Bears Cost Fear of crime Precautionary expenditures/effort Criminal justice system {1J Police and investigative costs {2J Prosecutors {3J Courts {4J Legal fees {aJ Public defenders {bJ Private {5J Incarceration costs {6J Nonincarcerative sanctions {7J Victim time {8J Jury and witness time Victim services {1J Victim service organizations {2J Victim compensation programs t3J Victim time Other noncriminal programs {1J Hot lines and public service announcements {2J Community treatment programs ~3J Private therapy/counseling Incarcerated offender costs t 1 J Lost wages {2J Lost tax revenue and productivity {3J Value of lost freedom {4J Psychological cost to family "Overdeterrence" costs {1J Innocent individuals accused of offense {2J Restriction of legitimate activity {3J Cost of additional detection avoidance by offenders "Justice" costs {1J Constitutional protections to avoid false accusations Society {2J Cost of increasing detection rate to avoid differential punishment Potential victim Potential victim Society Society Society Society Society Offenders Society Society Victim Jury/witness Society Society Victim Society Society Society/offender Offender/family Society Offender Family of offender Innocent party Society Offender Society
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From page 83... ...
Some of the costs of violent behavior fall directly on the offender who is apprehended and subject to the criminal justice system. Other costs are borne by the offender's family.
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From page 84... ...
The most obvious cost would be the opportunity cost of the offender's time. That is, if the offender could be gainfully employed while not engaging in the violent behavior, society has lost that productivity.
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From page 85... ...
Although we are unaware of its application to criminal victimization, applying contingent valua tion surveys to crime seems like a natural extension of recent work in this area. Another direct method of estimation is to estimate WTA based on actual jury awards for pain and suffering Cohen, 1987, 1988aJ.9 This method measures the amount that a jury believes is required to compensate a victim in order to make the victim "whole" or indifferent between the two health states no injury versus injury with compensation.
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From page 86... ...
Thus, for example, we would expect WTA estimates made by jury awards to be higher than WTA estimates using hedonic pricing estimation. This distinction is most stark when considering the risk of death.
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From page 87... ...
Data on victim Tosses have come primarily from the National Crime Survey INCH ;Shenk and Klaus, 19841. Data on public expenditures come from various sources, including the Bureau of Justice Statistics {1989bJ.
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From page 88... ...
was also subject to several important data limitations that probably lowered the cost estimates below their true values. First, as in virtually all previous cost of crime studies medical costs, property losses, and lost wages were taken from the NCS.
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From page 89... ...
resulting from an auto crash and leading to $2,000 in medical costs and lost wages, causes the same pain and suffering as a broken arm resulting from a physical assault. Cohen attempted to adjust for this fact by adding "mental suffering" to the body part pain and suffering estimates.
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From page 90... ...
For example, five studies relate to motor vehicle injury (Smart and Sanders, 1976; Faigin, 1976; Hartunian et al., 1981; National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1983, 1987; Miller and Luchter, 1988~; two each to unintentional injury {Ester, 1987; Miller et al., 1987) and spinal cord injury ;Smart and Sanders, 1976; Bureau of Economic Research, 1985~; and one to trauma-related injury ;Munoz, 1984~.
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From page 91... ...
Care Medical costs are defined as direct medical expenses, including physician, hospital, prescription drugs, and other treatment or appliances for physical injury, regardless of whether such costs have been reimbursed by insurance. Table 3 presents estimates of the number of victims, together with medical costs, averaged across all injured and uninjured vic TABLE 3 Medical Costs Due to Victim Injury, 1987 Average Medical Average Costs per Number of Medical Number of Injured Injured Percent Costs per Victims Victim Victims Injured Victim Rape 147,000 $ 616 Po,oOOa 61a $ 376 Robbery 1,068,500 344 383,000 .36 124 Assault 4,930,000 527 1,412,000 .29 153 Murder 20,100 5,370 20,100 1.00 5,370 aNearly half of these reported no physical injury other than the rape itself.
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From page 92... ...
The NCS data have several limitations. In addition to sampling and nonsampling errors, the NCS does not include victimization of organizations and commercial establishments, children under age 12, transients, the homeless, individuals in institutional settings such as nursing homes, and military personnel in the sampling frame.~5 The medical costs estimated here do not include any victim injury costs borne by nonsampled populations.
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From page 93... ...
The data indicated that 61 percent of rape and attempted rape victims reported injury Although nearly half of these had no physical injuries other than the rape itselfJ. Injuries were reported by 36 percent of robbery and attempted robbery victims, and 29 percent of assault and attempted assault .
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From page 94... ...
Medical costs resulting from murders were based on the assumptions that 50 percent of the victims expire at the scene and receive no medical care; 29 percent are transported to an emergency room, receiving medical care at a charge of $1,590 per fatality;20 and 21 percent receive emergency care $1,590) and are admitted to a hospital for an average of 5.85 days in the intensive care unit at a daily cost of $1,697.2i Medical costs for murder victims also include the additional cost associated with a premature funeral, $2,450 in 1987.22 With these assumptions, average medical costs per murder victim were an estimated $5,370.
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From page 95... ...
Despite a large and growing literature on PTSD and the psychological impact of intentional injury on victims, there appear to be no prior estimates of mental health-related expenses for victims of intentional injury. In fact, the National Crime Survey does not ask respondents about mental health treatment, presumably because of the sensitivity of such questions.
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From page 96... ...
Aggravated assault victims reported a 36.8 percent PTSD rate, whereas robbery victims reported 18.2 percent. Although this is one of the few studies that attempts to estimate the frequency of psychological injury for crimes other than rape, its usefulness is somewhat limited.
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From page 97... ...
Second, although Cohen ~1988a) estimated that the ratio of emotional distress to severely disabling psychological injury is about 4 to 1 in rape victims, this is probably too Tow for assault and robbery victims.
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From page 98... ...
Mental Health Costs For physical injuries, we were able to apply crime-specific estimates of the medical expense and lost wages to arrive at estimates of what a jury would award for the pain and suffering associated with that type injury. Since we have no comparable mental health expense and lost wage estimates for psychological injury, we use the estimates derived from jury award data in Cohen ;1988al.
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From page 99... ...
Monetary Losses to Victims: Cash and! Property Table 5 reports NCS data for nonmedical monetary Tosses to victims of rape, robbery, and assault.
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From page 100... ...
co c)
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From page 101... ...
The costs of investigation aimed at capturing and convicting the offender are not included here, because they are primarily costs of preventing future victimizations, as discussed in the next section. Victim Services Victim service organizations provide many services to victims of crime, including counseling, temporary shelter, and financial assistance.
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From page 102... ...
Given the assumption that the multiple categories in Table 6 are allocated TABLE 6 Victim Assistance Program Federal funds) Offense Number of Funds Programs Sexual assault only Spouse abuse only Child abuse only Sexual assault and spouse abuse Sexual assault and child abuse Spouse abuse and child abuse Sexual assault, spouse abuse, and child abuse Victims in general Other special victims Total $ 5,129,646 8,629,079 4,724,927 3,391,890 1,075,406 1,421,077 2,688,916 6,820,493 1,392,383 $35,375,806 240 427 219 167 30 34 97 226 45 1,489 SOURCE: Office of Victims of Crime {1988~.
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From page 103... ...
Police Response Administrative Costs Table 10 presents estimates of the emergency response costs for police: $78 for rape, $50 for robbery, $30 for assault, and $115 for murder. These estimates exclude the cost of investigation, because these costs have been assigned to "society's response to victimization" in the next section of the paper.
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From page 104... ...
times were estimated from a survey we conducted of several police departments {i.e., Dade County, Florida; San Antonio, Texas; San Jose, CaTifornial. Since these data represent crimes known to the police, the final figures have been adjusted to account for the percentage of crime not known to the police {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1989a:Table 921.
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From page 105... ...
For example, the cost of injury incurred by police officers during investigation of incidents of violent behavior is not reflected here.27 Emergency Transport Table 11 presents estimates of emergency ambulance costs, disaggregated by crime and distributed across all victims: $6 for rape, $4 for robbery, and $2 for assault. Because no data were available on the frequency of other modes of emergency transportation Such as helicopters!
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From page 106... ...
iTable 4 contains estimates of productivity loss due to mental health injuries.) Estimates of productivity Tosses resulting from victim injuries were based on lost workdays, lost housework days, and lost school days.
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From page 107... ...
Primarily, we assumed that injured victims do not return to housework prior to returning to the workplace.28 For victims who reported lost workdays, we estimated lost housework days at 365/243 {i.e.,
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From page 108... ...
Using the above procedure for inferring lost household production from reported lost wages, we estimated the average lost productivity due to victim involvement in the legal process for property repairs. This is also reported in Table 12.
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From page 109... ...
No cost estimates were available for legal costs associated with lawsuits brought by victims to recover damages. Health and Life Insurance Claims Excluding injuries in motor vehicle crashes, approximately 44 percent of the medical costs of injury are covered by private insurance.30 To compute the administrative costs to process medical claims for victim injury, we multiplied this percentage times the medical costs times the ratio of claims to administrative cost for health insurance, .084.3i These estimates may be conservative because it was not possible to determine the percentage of privately reimbursed victims reimbursed by workers' compensation, which carries a higher administrative cost of approximately 13 percent.
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From page 110... ...
Table 13 indicates that health insurance administrative costs for victim injuries were $20 for rape, $7 for robbery, $8 for assault, and $155 for murder.32 Life insurance for murder victims also results in administrative costs. We assume that children do not have life insurance coverage and that the average coverage per adult is $47,500.
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From page 111... ...
Legal Costs Associated With Tort Claims yers' Association. Traditionally, victims seldom file legal tort claims for injuries sustained as a result of violent behavior because offenders have few assets to make such suits worthwhile.
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From page 112... ...
Pain, Suffering, and Quality of Life Costs fox Nonfatal Victims In addition to out-of-pocket expenses, such as lost wages and medical expenses, crime victims endure pain, suffering, and reduced quality of life from their injuries. Although there is a conceptual difference between "pain and suffering" and "quality of life" costs to victims, the distinction can sometimes become blurred.
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From page 113... ...
Thus, the WTP estimates are more relevant for policy analysis of programs designed to reduce the risk of intentional injury, whereas the compensation estimates provide some indication of the amount juries believe is required to make victims "whole." Compensation should be higher than WTP. Evidence Using the Compensation Approach Following Cohen {1988al, we estimated the average medical cost and lost wages per type of injury, and combined these with jury award data to estimate the monetary value of pain and suffering.
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From page 114... ...
Average medical costs and lost workdays in cases of intentional injury are then used to estimate a pain and suffering award. Thus, the estimates here do not reflect the average jury award.
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From page 115... ...
Absent better data on actual mental health care costs and lost wages, we rely on the estimation technique used in Cohen {1988al, which yielded the following estimates fin 1987 dollars) : Average Average Medical Pain and Psychological Injury and LostWages Suffering Severely disabling psychological trauma $26,500 $139,961 Emotional distress 6,500 67,495 Fear with weapon present 4,856 Fear without weapon 2,398 The pain and suffering estimate for emotional distress is about $9,000 Tower than the estimate in Cohen il988al.
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From page 116... ...
It should be noted that the relatively Tow estimate for rape does not indicate a Tow level of fear among rape victims. Instead, the relatively low fear estimate reflects the fact that the percentage of rape and attempted rape victims who suffer from neither mental nor physical injury {and thus suffer only from fear)
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From page 117... ...
The whole life cost approach yields nonmonetary benefits equal to about 75 percent of the nonmonetary cost estimates from the compensation approach With an uncertainty range of +40 percent, meaning that the upper end of the range would exceed the compensation cost estimates d. These Tower estimates are reported in the last column of Table 14.
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From page 118... ...
However, in calculating the aggregate cost of violent behavior, the risk of death is not included. Otherwise, double counting of murders would result.
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From page 119... ...
Psychollogica] Injury to Family Member Finally, there might be psychological injury to a family member, especially one who actually witnesses a victimization.
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From page 120... ...
directly views a mother being raped in about 10 percent of all rapes reported to the police in Los Angeles County. Nationally, they report that about 40 percent of all rapes occur at home, and that 40 percent of all rape victims are of childbearing age.
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From page 121... ...
Except in the case of rape Where we assume a $10,000 Toss per incidents, we have not included separate quality of life estimates for family members. PSYCHOEOGICAE TRAUMA TO WITNESSES OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR In addition to family members, other witnesses of violent behavior might suffer from psychological trauma especially in cases of severe injury or death.
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From page 122... ...
To the extent that child abuse causes later violent behavior by former victims, the costs of the later violence stem from the earlier violence and should be attributed to it. Proper attribution would make it clear that prevention of the initial victimization will pay extra dividends through reduced future victimization.
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From page 123... ...
Because most criminal justice statistics refer solely to aggravated assaults, the cost estimates developed in this section do not include simple assaults. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES AND FEAR OF CRIME Individuals and firms take many precautionary measures to reduce their likelihood of becoming crime victims.
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From page 124... ...
Crime Prevention Behavior According to a recent Gallup Poll, 43 percent of the American people live within a mile of an area where they are "afraid to walk alone at night," and 10 percent say they do not feel "safe and secure" at home at night {Gallup, 1989:8~. People who fear being crime victims are likely to change their behavior.
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From page 125... ...
Conceptually, one could use the hedonic pricing technique to estimate property value differences based on the risk of crime. However, data limitations make it very unlikely that one could isolate the fear component of housing price differentials, much less the fear of each individual crime type.
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From page 126... ...
This can be added to judicial wage costs to arrive at a Tower bound. As an upper-bound estimate, we have used the estimated cost for state court time, about $4 per minute in 1982 {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 19884:123~.
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From page 127... ...
They collect data from about 40 different local agencies to determine the cost of each stage of the process-from police investigation through final disposition.37 Table 16 computes the average cost of each stage of the criminal justice process for Metro-Dade in 1987. These estimates include all adult felonies both Part I offenses and drug-related crimes.
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From page 128... ...
The first column lists the percentage of victims in the National Crime Survey who claim they reported the incident to the police Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1989a:801. The second column shows the number of estimated crimes, also taken from NCS data {except homicide, which was provided by
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From page 129... ...
With Criminal Justice System In 1986, an estimated $991 million was spent by all levels of government on indigent defense, whereas the average cost per
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From page 131... ...
Cost of Sanctions Convicted offenders are subject to a variety of sanctions such as jail or prison, probation, community service, and fines. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics jl989c)
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From page 132... ...
The remaining 52 percent are paid for by the offender. actual time served in jail for recently released prisoners are available from the Bureau of Justice Statistics jl989c, 1988f)
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From page 133... ...
The death penalty is imposed in about 2 percent of murder convictions {Bureau of Justice Statistics, l989cl. Although we do not know how many death penalties were imposed for other offenses, there has not been an execution in the United States for an~offense other than murder since 1967 {lamieson and Flanagan, 1989:6721.
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From page 134... ...
The cost of sanctions per offense is estimated to be $74,970 for murder, $5,420 for rape, $3,680 for robbery, and $3,735 for aggravated assault. These are average costs based on current levels of conviction and incarceration including offenses that do not lead to prosecution or .
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From page 135... ...
Roughly half of all violent crimes are reported to police. After initial contact with the police, 16-33 percent of victims reported later contact, including personal visits, telephone conversations and correspondence; 11-20 percent reported contact with other authorities; and 10-13 percent with victim assistance programs {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1989a; Whitaker, 19891.
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From page 136... ...
, 31 percent of all state prisoners were unemployed at the time of their incarceration; the corresponding estimate for jail inmates is 46.7 percent {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 19851. Weighted by population estimates, approximately 37 percent of all inmates were un
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From page 137... ...
Although we do not know how income was distributed across these various sources, if we assume it was evenly distributed, the average incarcerated offender costs society about $5,285 in lost productivity per year of incarceration. Combining this estimate with the average time served per offense from Table 22 yields the following lost productivity estimates: Murder Rape Robbery Aggravated assault $22,600 4,200 1,400 1,300 Not only is there no consensus on whether society should be "concerned" about the lost freedom to offenders, there are virtually no estimates of the value of lost freedom.
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From page 138... ...
To some extent, these are "innocent victims" of the offense as well. Although few studies exist on the impact of incarceration on family members of the offender, only about 20 percent of all jail and state prison inmates are reported married at the time of their incarceration {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1980, 1988bl.
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From page 139... ...
Similarly, we might not want to deter a person from cheating on his income taxes if that is the only viable way for him to afford the medical expenses needed to save his wife's life ;Shavell, 1985~. It is also possible to overdeter violent offenses.
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From page 140... ...
Although we would like to think this is not a significant problem given the high legal standards of proof in criminal cases, there is a growing concern over this problem in the case of child sexual abuse. Indeed, there have been reports of day care centers closing due to the inability to obtain insurance against child abuse claims ;Wickenden, 1985J.
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From page 141... ...
These costs are best thought of as the opportunity costs associated with criminal activity. Although the primary cost is likely to be lost productivity for offenders who would otherwise be engaged in legal and gainful employment, an additional cost might include the purchase of products to assist in the criminal activity {e.g., firearms)
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From page 142... ...
Table 25 summarizes the cost of society's response to violent behavior disaggregated into the categories of murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Unlike victimization costs, we are unable to estimate the cost of society's response to simple assaults.
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From page 143... ...
Police response {Table 10) Emergency transport {Table 11 Victim productivity Due to medical ITable 12J Due to mental health Table 4J Due to legal process ITable 12J Program administration {Table 13J Health and life insurance Government transfer programs Insurance/overhead {propertyJ Legal costs for civil suits Pain, suffering and quality of life Pain and suffering: victim iTable 14Je Risk of death: victim Quality of life for family Psychological trauma to witnesses Injuries caused by earlier victims Total $ 5,370b$ 376 n.a.3,886 n.a.11 105 465 610,000 n.a.
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From page 144... ...
TABLE 26 Aggregate Cost of Violent Behavior Rape Robbery Assault Cost of victimization $ 54,10019,200 Number of victims 147,0001,068,500 Aggregate cost {billion $) 8.0 16,500 4,930,000 20.5 81.3 NOTE: These estimates are based on the WTP approach.
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From page 145... ...
The costs of medical treatment and lost productivity for victim injuries are paid by different sources. We estimate that 32 percent of the medical costs of victim injuries fend other injuriesJ are paid by government, 44 percent by private insurers, 5 percent by charity, and 19 percent by victims and their families.39 Data from the Bureau of the Census {1989J suggest that employer premium payments ultimately cover about 72 percent of the private insurance premiums and that consumers cover the rest.
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From page 146... ...
They bear virtually all the costs of lost household production, about 24 percent of total productivity losses. Private insurance premiums cover about 70 percent of the administrative costs of insurance reimbursement, and government covers the remainder.
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From page 147... ...
There are several major gaps in the literature on the costs and consequences of violent behavior. In terms of offense types, we have not included kidnappings, bombings, arson, or child abuse.
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From page 148... ...
Although we know of no cost estimates made for child abuse, Daro {1988) provides some evidence on the cost of victim treatment and family intervention programs.
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From page 149... ...
6 The incidence of serious unintentional injury has been decTining over time, and treatment promoting recovery has been improved. As a result, prevalence-based unintentional injury estimates, which represent a cross-sectional snapshot, tend to be higher, because they capture higher than normal injury rates, including such costs as those associated with treating disabled American veterans from the Vietnam War.
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From page 150... ...
jl989:84) present a listing of cost of injury studies, including source; study period and methodology; total costs, as well as direct, indirect, and other related costs; and discount rate used.
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From page 151... ...
17 One measure of the possible underreporting of medical costs by victims is represented by gunshot wounds. The NCS data document an average medical cost per injury that ranges from ^~ .
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From page 152... ...
The amount that the health insurer charged for paying all future medical costs is added as a final cost. 20 This represents the weighted average in 1987 dollars of the costs per patients who die within one hour of arriving at a Washington, D.C.
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From page 153... ...
Nevertheless, no better estimates of administrative costs of claims are available. 32 For murder, the administrative cost percentage was applied to medical costs excluding funeral costs.
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From page 154... ...
38 Although the estimates of employment are for different base years, comparable years for the number of inmates are available. In 1986, there were an estimated 450,000 state prisoners {Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1988b)
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From page 155... ...
New Brunswick, N.~.: Rutgers University. Bureau of Justice Statistics jB}S)
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From page 156... ...
Department of Justice. 1989e The Redesigned National Crime Survey: Selected New Data.
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From page 157... ...
1988a Pain, suffering, and jury awards: A study of the cost of crime to victims. Law and Society Review 22:537-555.
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From page 158... ...
Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
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From page 159... ...
1989 Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics-1988. Bureau of TUStice Statistics.
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From page 160... ...
Cavanagh 1989 Imprisonment-to-Offense Ratios. Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCl-114948.
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From page 161... ...
Miller, T., and S Luchter 1988 The socioeconomic impacts of injuries resulting from motor vehicle crashes.
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From page 162... ...
1987 New dimensions in probation: Georgia's experience with intensive probation supervision.
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From page 163... ...
1985 Criminal law and the optimal use of nonmonetary sanctions as a deterrent. Columbia Law Review 85: 1233-1262.
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From page 164... ...
Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCT-94702. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
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From page 165... ...
1989 The Redesigned National Crime Survey: Selected New Data. Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCI-114746.
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From page 166... ...
Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
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