Ecologically Based Pest Management New Solutions for a New Century (1996) / Chapter Skim
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1 LESSONS FROM THE PAST PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE
1 LESSONS FROM THE PAST PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE
Pages 11-41
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From page 11... ...
Additional synthetic chemical pesticides including fungicides, nematicides, and other herbicides and insecticides were developed and put to widespread use. Initially, the benefits these new chemicals brought to agricultural production were thought to be without major disadvantages; however, ecological and human health risks and the economic costs of heavy, widespread use of broad-spectrum chemical pesticides are becoming more apparent.
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From page 12... ...
An early insectary design in which caterpillars were placed in cages to attract beneficial arthropods was recommended by Thomas Hartig of Germany in 1827. In one of the first attempts at classical biological control, entomologist Asa Fitch suggested that toadflax, an exotic plant introduced to the United States from Europe, could be managed by importing the natural enemy of this weed from its native habitat.
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From page 13... ...
Today, alligator weed remains under check in most of the South; however, the effectiveness of the flea beetle has been reduced in Mississippi as a result of extensive aerial spraying of chemical insecticides, and the flea beetles alone are usually not sufficient to manage this weed in high visibility areas such as golf course ponds and irrigation canals. For water hyacinth, plant pathogens were suggested as possible biocontrol organisms as early as the 1930s in India.
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From page 14... ...
1889 Australian ladybird beetle intro duced to control cottony-cushion scale; credited with saving the California citrus industry. TEPP, first organophosphate 1938 B
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From page 15... ...
registration of microbial pesticide (Bacillus popilliae + B lentimorhus)
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From page 16... ...
1983 First successful transfer of a plant gene from one species to an other. 1986 Development of transgenic virus resistant plants using coat protein gene.
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From page 17... ...
. The knowledge gained by these applications of biological controls continues to be used today in managing plant pathogens, weeds, and arthropods.
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From page 18... ...
Through trial and error, early agriculturalists, building on natural processes, developed agricultural practices that suppressed pests. For example, crop rotation and application of manure were
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From page 19... ...
. Throughout the history of agriculture, the benefits achieved through advocated cultural practices were recognized, but the importance of natural processes in realizing many of these benefits only began to be appreciated when science
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From page 20... ...
Many of the cultural practices developed throughout the evolution of agriculture are still used today. Crop rotation (successive planting of different crops in the same field)
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From page 21... ...
Corn derived from the Tms hybrids facilitated corn breeding because it was male sterile and therefore did not require tedious and expensive detasselling. However, Tms hybrids were extremely susceptible to race T of Bipolaris maydis, the causal agent of southern corn leaf blight.
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From page 22... ...
In field experiments, when inoculated onto seeds, fluorescent pseudomonads suppress take-all and increase yield of wheat. The take-all decline system illustrates a form of biological control that is achieved through the cultural practice of wheat monoculture, which causes a shift in the composition of microorganisms present on the roots and in crop debris.
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From page 23... ...
. In 1995, the first commercial variety of such virus-resistant plants was introduced -- crooked-neck squash resistant to cucumber mosaic virus and zucchini yellow mosaic virus.
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From page 24... ...
. Herbicides account for more than 90 percent of pesticide applications in corn and soybean production today (Lin et al., 1995)
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From page 25... ...
. Many scientists have noted that IPM strategies normally depend on pesticides as the primary management tool and have highlighted the need to develop systems that depend primarily on biological control organisms, resistant plants, cultural controls, and other ecologically based tools (Cate and Hinkle, 1993; Edwards, 1991; Ferro, 1993; Flint and van den Bosch, 1981; Frisbie et al., 1992; Frisbie and Smith, 1989; Hoy and Herzog, 1985; Kogan, 1986; Pedigo and
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From page 26... ...
For some soilborne pathogens, nematodes, arthropods, and aquatic weeds, there are no acceptable conventional chemical pesticides. Widespread use of pesticides has also raised concerns about the health effects of pesticide residues in foods humans and livestock animals eat.
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From page 27... ...
, plant pathogen, and weed species resistant to synthetic chemical pesticides since their development in the late 1930s. SOURCE: Adapted from Gould, F
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From page 28... ...
. For that reason, antibiotics and copper compounds used for management of plant diseases are no longer effective against many bacterial plant pathogens (Jones, 1982)
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From page 29... ...
; brown soft scale became a major citrus pest in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas in 1959 when parathion applied to adjacent cotton fields drifted into citrus groves and killed biological control organisms (Dean et al., 1983) ; and, outbreaks of citrus red mite, purple scale, and woolly whitefly followed large applications of carbaryl and chlordane in an attempt to eradicate the Japanese beetle (DeBach and Rose, 1977)
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From page 30... ...
Bollworms and budworms, which had reached pest status through the use of insecticides applied to control the boll weevil, now rivaled the boll weevil as the most serious pests in cotton production. Fortunately, pioneering work by Brazzel and colleagues (1961)
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From page 31... ...
later reported that seven treatments applied in the fall would increase suppression of spring boll weevil populations to 98 percent, especially when used in combination with cultural practices and pheromone-trapping technology. This work led to the initiation of a successful interstate coordinated effort, the Pilot Boll Weevil Eradication Experiment, in southern Mississippi and adjoining areas of Louisiana and Alabama from 1971 to 1973.
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From page 32... ...
Some well-known exotic pests include • arthropods such as Mediterranean fruit fly, boll weevil, gypsy moth, pink bollworm, Japanese beetle, European corn borer, sweet potato whitefly, and Russian wheat aphid; • pathogens such as white pine blister rust, Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight fungus, and potato blight fungus; and • weeds such as hydrilla, water hyacinth, purple loosestrife, leafy spurge, and kudzu. Losses to agricultural production caused by exotic plant pests alone equal approximately $28.8 billion per year, and expenditures for their prevention and control equal approximately $3.2 billion per year (Schwalbe, 1993)
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From page 33... ...
Fortunately, these nematodes have a number of natural en emies, and biological controls are being investigated in several laboratories in the United States and elsewhere. The fungus Verticillium lecanii, in combination with a sex pheromone, reduced SCN in recent greenhouse and field tests (Meyer and Huettel, 1993)
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From page 34... ...
Agriculturalists have long known that the incidence and severity of virus diseases can be reduced by • eliminating weeds that harbor viruses and serve as alternate hosts from which insect vectors spread the virus; • using insecticides to control the vectors, for example, aphids and whiteflies; • crop rotation and crop sanitation practices to reduce the sources of inoculum; and • shifting planting dates to avoid infestations of insect vectors. Even with recommended agricultural practices, growers face the possibility of substantial losses caused by disease in years in which climactic changes augment heavy infestations of arthropod vectors.
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From page 35... ...
Row-Crop Pests Pest management in row crop production systems represents a major challenge. The value of row crops -- annual crops grown in rows (vegetables and small fruit)
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From page 36... ...
. Host-specific fungal pathogens also have excellent potential as biological control agents for aquatic weeds (Charudattan, 1990b)
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From page 37... ...
Although some agents, such as the fish and insects, have gained considerable recognition as successful agents and have been used on a wide scale for many years, similar success can be obtained with other agents, notably microbial pathogens. Classical biological control against aquatic weeds using fungal pathogens is another promising approach (Charudattan, 1990c)
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From page 38... ...
Decades lapsed between the time these pesti cides were registered for use and the time of their suspension of use, cancellation of registration, or withdrawal from the market. Chlordane -- an insecticide used for termite control December 1975: EPA issues suspends registration for the use of chlordane January 1977: a Circuit Court of Appeals affirms chlordane use on termites March 1978: EPA cancellation hearings take place as registrant agrees to phase out uses of chlordane on corn and other crops August 1987: registrant agrees to stop sale for use on termites EDB -- a fumigant used to control plant pathogens September 1983: EPA issues a notice of intent to cancel registrations of EDB for major uses poetic treatise about the unanticipated adverse effects of chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT.
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From page 39... ...
Surface waters such as lakes and streams have been found to be contaminated by agricultural pesticides that run off the land as a result of chemical, soil, site, and climate conditions. Runoff is also associated with heavy early spring rains that may fall after herbicides are applied prior to planting.
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From page 40... ...
. Acute effects also arising from consumption of contaminated foods are possible if application rates exceed legally mandated tolerances for pesticide residues or if residues of several pesticides with the same mode of action conjointly exceed those tolerances (National Research Council, 1993b)
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From page 41... ...
The combined effects of resistance, escalating costs of developing new compounds, and pesticide-induced pest outbreaks seriously impede agriculture's ability to manage pests economically and safely using current broad-spectrum, chemical-dominated approaches. Because growers need nontoxic and low-cost controls for pest problems, researchers have been exploring a wide range of alternative management practices, including traditional cultural controls (Ferris, 1992)
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