Ecologically Based Pest Management New Solutions for a New Century (1996) / Chapter Skim
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3 ACCELERATING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
3 ACCELERATING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Pages 69-95
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From page 69... ...
EBPM research will benefit from the biotechnology knowledge base generated primarily through health science research; but a comparable knowledge base in ecology, particularly microbial ecology, is needed. A full understanding of the dynamics among pests and control organisms in agricultural and forest ecosystems will require development of in situ methods to measure populations of both pests and control organisms and characterize their interactions -- from multitrophic effects to molecular signaling.
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From page 70... ...
The focus should be to identify research that either overcomes obstacles to wider use of ecologically based management systems or leads to new and innovative ecologically based approaches. Thus far only cursory knowledge about biological factors that control agricultural pest populations has been developed.
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From page 71... ...
These areas should receive priority for funding: • research on the ecology of managed ecosystems; • research on behavioral, physiological, and molecular mechanisms to effect EBPM; • research to identify and conserve natural resources necessary for EBPM; • development of better research and diagnostic techniques; • development of ecologically based crop protection strategies; • research on implementation and evaluation of EBPM; • research to improve understanding of the socioeconomic issues affecting adoption of EBPM; and • development of new institutional approaches to encourage the necessary interdisciplinary cooperation.
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From page 72... ...
Studying organisms in the soil milieu has been extremely difficult using conventional methodologies, highlighting the need to develop new tools for these investigations. Physical, Chemical, and Biological Conditions in the Rhizosphere and the Phyllosphere and Their Effect on the Development of Pest Populations Soil conditions affected by cultural practices and chemical inputs (e.g., fertilizers and pesticides)
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From page 73... ...
Although these experiments served to draw attention to the issue of risk associated with biological control, they also showed the potential of this new technology to build an increased understanding of microbial ecology. The Role of Dispersal Mechanisms in Establishment of Populations of Major Pests and Their Biological-Control Organisms Many agriculturally important weeds, invertebrates, and microbes are not permanent residents of the crop fields and orchards they inhabit.
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From page 74... ...
Inoculation of Agricultural Systems with Specific Biological-Control Agents: Effects on Nontarget Organisms There has been much concern about the nontarget effects of conventional pesticides; but as biological organisms, products, and resistant cultivars become the centerpiece of pest management, more attention will need to be focused on their potential side effects. When an introduced biological-control organism fails, it will be necessary to determine why it failed, rather than simply search for alternative agents.
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From page 75... ...
and remote sensing technologies -- new tools in this area of study -- are leading to rapid advances in understanding how temporal and spatial variation affect survival of endangered species, pest populations, and beneficial organisms. One technique of landscape ecology used by weed scientists involves manipulating spatial access to water and nutrients in order to suppress weed populations and increase crop yield.
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From page 76... ...
Knowing what factors control interactions among organisms will help scientists better understand how to manipulate pest populations, or communities containing these organisms, to reduce their impact. Understanding biological control at the cellular or molecular level has a predictive value, enabling scientists to set realistic expectations for when and where biological control may succeed or fail.
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From page 77... ...
Knowledge that some arthropod and nematode pests must locate and recognize a crop as a food source can guide scientists to chemicals capable of controlling pest foraging behaviors. An understanding of organisms' behavior in managed ecosystems can also help scientists design cropping systems that favor the success of biological-control organisms and reduce pest damage (Kareiva, 1990; Lewis et al., 1990)
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From page 78... ...
Microorganisms that produce antibiotic compounds are among the most successful biological-control agents. Future research could lead to • production of novel antibiotics through domain switching, as has been done for polyketide antibiotics; • understanding when genes encoding antibiotic biosynthetic enzymes are expressed in situ and what environmental cues induce antibiotic biosynthesis; • optimizing in situ antibiotic production by placing biosynthetic operons under regulatory control of constitutive promoters or by modifying the biological environment to enhance biosynthetic gene expression; and • evaluation of pest resistance to antibiotics or toxins produced by biological-control agents.
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From page 79... ...
Research plans are also being developed to determine whether some microbial pathogens that have coevolved with arthropods could be manipulated to control specific arthropod pest populations. A virus of the plant pathogenic fungus Cryphonectria parasitica is an important model to describe how naturally occurring or recombinant viruses can control fungal diseases of plants (Nuss, 1992)
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From page 80... ...
1992. Biological control of chestnut blight: An example of virus-medi ated attenuation of fungal pathogenesis.
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From page 81... ...
To allay these concerns requires a better understanding of the genetics of host-range specificity, which will provide insights into how organisms can be genetically altered to limit their current and potential host range and thus enhance their safety as control organisms. Some progress has been made in understanding the genetic basis of host selection by microbial plant pathogens -- an important step toward understanding the molecular basis of host specialization by plant pathogens.
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From page 82... ...
. Research to Identify and Conserve Natural Resources Needed for EBPM A founding principle of classical biological control of exotic pests is that natural enemies of the pest can be found in the geographic region where the pest evolved.
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From page 83... ...
Even in agricultural systems that have been studied for decades, many natural enemies of agricultural pests do not fit into described species and therefore their classification remains uncertain. In unmanaged ecosystems where effective natural control agents are found in association with their hosts, the number of undescribed species is even higher.
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From page 84... ...
Novel approaches based on in situ hybridization, immunoisolation using monoclonal antibodies, or amplification of DNA isolated directly from environmental samples offer promise for the in situ study and quantification of microbial populations. Future studies using such techniques will greatly enhance understanding of the composition of communities of plant-associated microbes and population sizes of introduced antagonists or weed or insect pathogens as well as to increase understanding of the complex interaction between soil microbes, allelopathy, and resulting weed-suppressive soils.
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From page 85... ...
Unfortunately, the tools developed to genetically manipulate these model systems often do not work with organisms of interest for biological control. Transformation methods and vectors need to be developed for organisms potentially important for biological control.
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From page 86... ...
Development of Ecologically Based Crop Protection Strategies Previous research priorities have addressed components of various biological-control strategies, however, the goal of durable pest control can only be achieved if the various strategies are coordinated and implemented in an integrated manner. The concept of IPM provided a good model for the type of integration that would be desirable, but IPM also serves to exemplify pitfalls to be avoided.
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From page 87... ...
Develop Strategies for Achieving Durable Plant-Host Resistance Concern has been expressed about the durability of pest-resistance genes, but pathogen- and arthropod-resistant cultivars can be deployed in ways that reduce or eliminate the breakdown of resistance caused by changes in the genetics of pest populations. Innovations in genetics and applied evolutionary biology provide an excellent opportunity for researchers to develop methods to augment the few commercial practices available for protection of pest-resistance genes.
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From page 88... ...
In the manipulation of plant genetics, thought should be given to how traits of crop plants can be altered to enhance the overall health by enhancing populations or activities of naturally occurring or introduced biological-control organisms. Research on Implementation and Evaluation of EBPM The research needs for EBPM discussed in the sections above have emphasized the need for new knowledge of biological processes, interactions, or organisms useful for biological control.
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From page 89... ...
Research to Improve Understanding of the Socioeconomic Issues Affecting Adoption Social and economic factors will play significant roles in determining whether EBPM will be widely adopted. Research is needed to (a)
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From page 90... ...
. Studies of the economic feasibility of ecologically based management systems relative to conventional systems need to be done for a variety of crops and geographic areas.
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From page 91... ...
Research into the interactions among organisms in managed systems will enable scientists to design tools and methodologies to reduce populations of problematic organisms without negatively affecting the balance of the system. The complexity of managed ecosystems necessitates coordinated multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research to develop and implement EBPM.
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From page 92... ...
Institutional structures, including professional societies and academic departments, and consequently funding patterns for research, are largely responsible for the development of barriers that then become hardened through competition for limited research and extension funds and other types of institutional support and recognition. Events in the past few decades that are unique to the pest sciences are challenging efforts to encourage interdisciplinary cooperation between these groups.
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From page 93... ...
A strong, unified group that encourages multidisciplinary research and provides a forum for discussions of common themes related to EBPM could help to assure future interdisciplinary approaches to biological control. Forums for research and extension interactions between the pest science disciplines can also reverse the evolution toward different nomenclatures describing common phenomena.
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From page 94... ...
Providing adequate research funding to accelerate the development and implementation of EBPM is difficult because of the diversity of research needs. Progress in biological control, for example, has been greatest where the necessary basic information is available or easily obtained.
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From page 95... ...
Ecologically based management systems with universal applicability are rare. Site specificity places unusual research, development, and extension burdens on local institutions.
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