Natural Climate Variability on Decade-to-Century Time Scales (1995) / Chapter Skim
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From page 615... ...
, 81-96 dust generation and, 573 El Nino events and, 99, 103, 105-106, 115, 167, 202-204, 207, 208, 209 empirical orthogonal analysis of, 190, 200, 201, 203, 205, 272 globally averaged, 13, 57, 97-107, 121, 126, 195, 200, 204, 207, 600 gradual warming trend, 600-601 and Great Salinity Anomaly, 326 greenhouse gases and, 92-94, 95 greenhouse warming and, 54-55 and Gulf Stream, 125-126 hemispheric means, 514-516 interannual variability, 67, 103, 107-110, 203, 204, 219 latitude and, 54, 165, 200-202, 204-206, 207 marine, 105, 122-124, 514-516, 574 meridional advection, 137 microwave soundings, 200, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208-209 models/modeling, 90-92, 164-165, 176 North Atlantic, 123, 125- 128, 317, 434-436, 533, 534, 600, 601 North Pacific climate and, 473-474, 475-476 periodicity in, 13, 97-104 and plant microclimates, 577-579 and pressure, 124-127, 527-528 615 radiosonde data, 205-206, 208-209 and rainfall, 43 records, 24, 28, 131, 167, 199-200, 422, 492, 516-517 relative humidity and, 90-92 sea ice and, 189, 251 sea surface temperature and, 261 seasonal patterns, 200-202, 204-206, 210, 436, 516, 520 snow cover and, 50-55, 57, 79, 90-92 and snowfall, 73-74, 78-79 soil moisture and, 53, 57, 89-90 spectral analysis, 100-104, 105, 525-527 stratospheric (lower) , 206-207 structure of, 200-202, 204-206 sulfate aerosols and, 94 sunspot cycles and, 90-92, 97-99, 178-179, 192-193, 529-530, 532, 600 surface albedo and, 51-52 and thermohaline circulation, 434-436 tree-ring reconstructions of, 25-27, 29, 117-118, 167, 492, 517-520, 523-532, 600 tropospheric, 53, 116, 200, 202-206, 207 urban heat-island effects, 14, 61, 88-89, 521, 526 volcanism and, 185-186, 195, 206-207, 208, 209 wind and, 90-92, 125-126 winter, 12, 312 Akkadian culture, 493
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From page 616... ...
See also Coupled atmospheric-oceanic circulation systems; Winds; specific features anticyclones, 90, 116-118, 128, 132, 255, 475 biennial-scale fluctuations, 128 century-scale variations, 117-118 cyclonic, 127, 357, 360, 362 data sources, 112, 113, 117-118 decadal-scale fluctuations, 13, 116-117, 128, 189 double jet structure, 119 eddy vorticity fluxes, 478 equivalent-barotropic vertical structure, 112, 113, 116, 118 glacial-to-interglacial transition, 552, 553 Hadley cell, 41, 193, 194 and heat-flux anomalies, 119, 128, 136-139, 147-148 inherent variability in, 188-190 interannual variations, 111-116 mechanisms, 115-116 momentum flux, 115 and North Atlantic climate, 124- 128, 424 North Pacific climate, 21, 347, 472-474, 476-477 Northern Hemisphere, 121 and oceanic circulation, 399 phase lags, 114 pressure and, 112, 116-117, 118, 128 proxy data on, 112, 117-118, 119 and rainfall, 41, 42, 117 and salinity, 294 and sea surface temperature, 124-128, 261, 327, 414, 424 snow cover and, 50-58, 414 Southern Hemisphere, 111-119 storm backs, 115-116, 118, 119, 137, 473, 478 temperature and, 116, 117-118, 261 transient eddy activity, 115-116 upper-air data, 112-116 Walker circulation, 41, 356, 499 wave trains, 114-115, 116, 118 wind-stress curl, 272, 386 zonally symmetric modes, 113-114, 115-116, 118, 165 Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project, 399, 400 Atmospheric models/modeling. See also Coupled general-circulation models; General-circulation models applications, 164-168, 601 baroclinic flow, 166 cloud component, 430 constraints on, 426-427 detection of forced climate signals, 175-181 deterministic, 171-172 greenhouse effect, 169-174 natural climate variability, 169-174 one-dimensional, 165 optimal filters, 177-178, 179 paleoclimatic data interpretation, 167-174 primitive-equation, 399, 426-427 sensitivity, 601 tritium fluxes, 277 types, 11, 164-166, 354 U.K.
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From page 617... ...
, 46 Centre for Climate and Global Change Research, 131 Chad, Lake, 38, 493, 509-510 Charleston, South Carolina, 272, 312 Charlie-Gibbs fracture zone water, 282-283, 291, 297, 302 Chemical Manufacturers Association, China cloud cover, 92 ice cores, 27-28, 29 meteorological network, 88, 89 rainfall, 45, 48 snowfall, 55, 58 temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 200, 201, 517 Chlorofuorocarbons, tracer studies, 275-276, 277-279, 281-282, 283-286 Chlorophyll, 473 Chukchi Sea, 312 Circulation. See Atmospheric circulation; Ocean circulation Circumpolar Deep Water, 315, 385 277 CLIMAP program, 423, 536, 542 Climate Analysis Center, 522 Climate forcing and forcing agents aerosols, 94 anthropogenic, 13, 174, 602 of Arctic fluctuations, 260-261 atmospheric observations, 15-16 climate sensitivity to, 172, 176, 181-186, 192, 208 Milankovitch effect, 172 natural, 13, 15-16, 178-179 ocean response to, 182- 184, 534 ozone, 59 Sahel drought, 45 stochastic, 337, 338, 360-362, 382, 398-406 tidal, 106, 524 white-noise, 171, 173, 178, 362 Climate monitoring deep ocean, 324 with corals, 495-505 issues, 15, 235 recommendations, 511, 606 tropical ocean, 495-505 systems, 15 Climate-signal detection carbon dioxide, 105 "fingerprint" technique, 18 from glaciers, 55-56 greenhouse, 18, 530-531 models for, 178-180 signal-processing approach, 175-181, 201 Tasmanian temperatures and, 530-531 Climate System Modeling Program, 396 Cloud cover albedo, 93, 94 ceiling height, 90 global warming and, 93, 95 modeling, 430, 433 seasonal relationships, 92 sky cover, 90 snow cover and, 52, 54, 56 and temperature, 15-16, 90-92, 93, 95, 189 Cocos, Costa Rica, 503 Cod fisheries, 239, 306-309, 317 Colorado, temperatures, 20, 22 Columbia University, 423 Commonwealth of Independent States.
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From page 618... ...
, 53, 353, 360, 380-381, 426, 429, 433-440, 529, 535 greenhouse effect, 416 gyre transports, 438-439 Hamburg, 119, 399, 406, 429 history, 415-416 interannual variability, 444 interdecadal variability, 337-338, 416, 432-441 intermediate-time- scale , 426-427 low-frequency variability, 251 Mikolajewicz-Maier-Reimer model, 399-401 mixed-layer processes, 417 North Atlantic, 337-338, 432-441 North Pacific, 416 oceanic components, 399, 433, 444 problems/issues, 251, 414, 416, 417, 419-431 research needs, 417-418 salinity component, 416, 434-436, 441 sea-ice component, 399, 433, 441 sea surface temperature, 417, 434-436, 444-445 solar forcing, 415 surface-flux adjustments, 433 thermohaline circulation, 130, 131, 171, 380-381, 399, 416, 417, 432-441 tropical Pacific Ocean, 1 validation, 425-429, 433 Zebiak-Cane, 443-457 Crosby, Nebraska, 63 Cryosphere. see also Sea ice; Snow cover influence on climate processes, 8 C.S.S.
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From page 619... ...
phenomenon. See also Southern Oscillation; TOGA Program base-state forcings, 443, 445-448, 453, 457, 459, 463-465, 466, 468, 469, 470 biological responses to, 457 century-scale variability, 416, 465-466, 469, 501-503 chaotic nonlinear dynamics, 449, 468 characteristics, 6-7, 53, 190, 499 and climate change, 197, 453 coral records, 496, 498, 499-504, 505 cycle, 355, 442-471, 499, 502-503, 509 historical records, 459, 460 instrument data, 460, 461-466 intensity, 465-466, 468, 469 interdecadal-scale variability, 416, 456 internal dynamics, 451-452 La Nina events, 473, 478, 481 and lake-level and surface-area changes, 508-509 mechanisms, 443-445, 459-460 models/modeling, 242, 246, 247, 400, 416-417, 418, 426, 429, 439, 442-457 natural "noise" and, 443, 448-451, 453, 456, 457 and North Pacific climate, 473, 478-481 and ocean circulation, 499, 500 origin of, 99 prediction, 2, 181 235, 448 proxy data, 453-454, 459, 460-461, 471, 496, 498, 550 and rainfall patterns, 39, 41, 48, 442-443, 453, 460, 461, 464, 466, 468-469, 470, 499, 500, 501-502 regional recurrence, 466, 469 research needs, 471 and sea level changes, 230, 271, 499 and sea level pressure, 459, 460, 461-466, 468, 479-480, 501 seasonal variations, 448 secular variability, 458-471 snow cover and, 53-54, 55 spatial patterns, 209, 500 sunspot activity and, 193, 443, 509 619 temperature and, 31, 53, 99, 103, 105-106, 115, 167, 190, 202-204, 207, 208, 209, 246, 355-356, 444-448, 450, 454, 459, 460, 461-462, 464-468, 470-471, 478, 499, 500, 502, 515-516 and thermohaline circulation, 470 tracer studies, 500-501 underwater tectonic activity and, 443 volcanic eruptions and, 443, 471 wind forcing, 452, 499 Eliassen-Palm theorems, 341 Energy-balance models, 165, 176, 178, 181-182, 364 England central, temperature changes, 24, 28, 131, 167, 259, 517, 532 fossil records, 534, 535 English Channel, 563 EPOCS program, 421, 423 ERICA program, 423 Erika Dan, 297 Espiritu Santo Island, 498 Eurasia runoff, 262 snow cover, 51-53, 54, 64, 66 temperatures, 19-20, 22, 28, 191 Eurasian Basin Bottom Water, 287 Eurasian Basin Deep Water, 287 Eurasian shelf, 257, 258 Eurocore project, 550 Europe aerosol forcing, 94 cloud cover, 92 cyclones, 52 polar seas, 286-288 precipitation, 191 re-analysis modeling projects, 16 temperatures, 81, 86, 123, 191, 516-517, 520, 522 European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, 53, 113, 114, 115, 119, 141 Evaporation, 93, 368, 478 Faeroe Bank Channel, 293, 297 Faeroe Ridge, 304, 538 Faeroe-Shetland Channel, 292, 294, 306, 309, 325, 537 Fennoscandia, temperature reconstructions, 518-5 l 9, 522 Fickian relationships, 340, 341, 344 Filcher ice shelf, 262 Finland, temperatures, 85 Fisheries, 239, 306-309, 318, 317, 473, 492, 560-562, 564-566 Floods, African river, 37 Florida, temperatures, 473, 475 Florida Bay, 498 Florida State University, 141 Food webs, 559-560 Fossil record coleoptera assemblages, 534, 535, 545 plankton assemblages, 537-541 Pram Strait, 259, 316, 424 Fylla Bank, 300 Galapagos archipelago, corals, 498, 500, 501, 503-504, 505 GATE program, 423 General-circulation models.
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From page 620... ...
See also Carbon tetrachloride; Chlorofluorocarbons Healy, Kansas, 63 Heat exchange. See also Evaporation air-sea, 19, 121, 134-139 data sources, 134-135, 423 modeling, 381, 430 North Atlantic conveyor belt, 533, 534-535, 536-537 Pacific basin, 134-139, 142-144, 478 parameterizations, 134, 135-136, 147 poleward heat transport, 366-367, 371, 375-376, 379 standing-eddy poleward transport, 261 thermohaline circulation and, 19, 366-367, 369-370, 375-376, 384, 391, 394, 427, 528-529 Heat fluxes anomalies, 136-139, 141 Atlantic conveyor, 536-537 atmospheric circulation and, 119, 128, 136-139, 147-148, 165, 440 errors in, 135-136 calculations, 135-136, 142, 219 interior of the earth, 95 latent, 119, 128 monthly variability, 134 Pacific Ocean, 134, 473, 474, 476 sea surface temperature and, 134, 137-139, 141, 143, 147, 219-221 total surface, 141 vertical distribution, 165 Historical documents, climate reconstructions from, 420, 460, 492, 493, 516, 517, 602 Hobart, sea level pressure, 527-528 Holocene epoch, 259, 363, 550-551, 552, 553 Huaynaputina eruption, 549 Human activities, and Sahel drought, 46, 48 Humidity, 90-92 Hurricanes, 367 Hydrological cycle, 8, 74, 261, 362 Hydrological model, 277 Hydrology, surface, snow cover and, 53 Ice.
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From page 621... ...
, 14, 15, 95, 96 Intertropical Convergence Zone, 277, 366 Ireland, rainfall, 327 Irminger Current, 296, 306, 308, 309, 316 Irminger Sea, 239, 254, 255, 258, 291, 296, 297, 303, 305-317 Irrigation, 14, 89 Japan cloud cover, 92 marine observations, 247 meteorological network, 88, 89 temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 95 Japanese Meteorological Institute, 53 Kalahari region, rainfall, 34, 38, 39, 42 Kansas, snow cover, 61 Kanton Island, 504, 505 Katmai eruption, 185, 207 Kelvin waves, 351, 443 Kenya, rainfall, 35, 40 Khartoum, 35 Klementinum Observatory, 85-87 Koch ice index, 131, 167, 259, 312, 313, 314 Krakatoa eruption, 184, 185 Krypton, 276, 279, 282-283 Ksudach eruption, 207 Labrador Basin, 302 Labrador Current, 295, 296, 297, 325 Labrador Sea circulation, 291, 295-296, 297, 326 cod-larvae drift, 309 convection, 283, 302, 313, 376, 378-379, 438 deep-water formation, 121, 291, 319, 375, 379, 381, 536-537, 538 density anomalies, 438 meridional geostrophic flow, 376-377 model, 380, 382 overturning, 375, 376-377, 379 pressure, 379 salinity, 293, 294, 295-304, 325 sea-ice extent, 121, 129, 130, 131, 189, 258-259, 314 temperature, 298, 301 and thermohaline circulation, 263, 384, 395 topography, 380 Labrador Sea Water chlorofluorocarbons, 278 convection, 299 density, 298-299 freshening, 383 properties, 296-297 salinity, 239, 291, 297, 299, 300, 302 transports, 262, 302, 303 Lake levels and surface area and decade-to-century variability, 506-511 and drought, 510-511 and ENSO phenomenon, 508-509 evidence for past fluctuations, 508 monitoring recommendations, S l l and ocean-atmosphere interactions, 493 and precipitation, 492 satellite imaging, 508, 509 sea surface temperatures and, 509-510 and surface water balance, 507-508 temperature reconstructions from, 118 and tropical climate, 506-511 Land-surface feedback and rainfall variability, 41-43, 46 Sahelian, 15, 41-43, 45-46 snow and, 53-54 temperature and, 54 Land temperature (surface air)
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From page 622... ...
See also Networks, meteorological accuracies, 238 of chlorofluorocarbons, 275, 276, 278 measurement, 515 of precipitation, 68-70, 76 of salinity, 238 sea level, 237-238, 270 ship-based observations, 14, 119, 121, 134, 234-235 of snow cover, 14, 54, 64 of temperature, 14, 121, 200, 206, 242, 238, 273, 319-320 of water velocity, 238 Medieval Warm Period, 38, 524, 527, 530, 551, 552 Mediterranean area, winter, 420 Mediterranean Outflow, 303 Mediterranean Water, 302, 385 Meteor, 237 Meteorological Office Historical Sea Surface Temperature (MOHSST) Data Set, 222-226, 242, 247, 251, 252 Methane, 195 Methodologies averaging processes, 30, 33, 176-178 empirical-orthogonal-function analysis, 121, 122-124, 132, 136-139, 142, 148-149, 167, 176, 177-178, 180, 181, 190, 200, 201, 203, 260 maximum entropy, 100-104 mean-square-error formalism, 176-177 multi-taper method, 166-167 principal-component analysis, 112-114 rainfall averaging, 33 signal-processing approach, 175- 181 singular spectrum analysis, 167, 181, 462-463 temperature averaging, 30, 99-100, 121-124, 176-178 theoretical- orthogonal-function analysis, 178-179, 180, 181 tracer studies, 274-289 tree growth, conversion to temperature, 24-25 validation, 166-168, 602 INDEX Microwave radiation snow charting, 14, 62-63 temperature soundings, 200, 202, 204, 206, 238 Milcent, Greenland, 24 Ministerial North Sea Conference, 568 Minnesota, temperatures, 517 Miragoane, Lake, 510 Models/modeling.
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From page 623... ...
See also Pacific-North American teleconnection pattern; individual countries cyclones, 52 droughts, 6, 12, 19, 52, 82, 85, 468-469, 470 precipitation, 14, 67-71, 73, 74-76, 255 runoff, 254-255, 258-259, 312, 314 snow cover, 52, 54-55, 61, 64, 66 snowfall, 53, 71-74, 76 streamflows, 76 temperatures, 19-20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 54,81,88, 134,209,473,477, 516, 517, 522 North Atlantic Central Water, 306 North Atlantic Current, 295, 296, 319 North Atlantic Deep Water circulation, 291, 319, 367, 385, 402-403 density, 301 fluxes, 304 formation, 263, 304, 319, 366, 367, 536-537, 538 glaciations and, 366 interruption of production, 303 millennial-scale changes, 315, 367 modeling, 396 net export, 537 salinity changes, 293, 299 sources, 239, 258, 291 Sverdrup transport, 262 thermohaline circulation and, 384 Younger Dryas cooling event and, 190-191, 538, 540 North Atlantic Drift, 294 623 North Atlantic Ocean air-sea interactions, 121, 356-357, 359 air temperatures, 123, 125-128, 317, 533, 534, 600, 601 atmospheric circulation influences, 124-128, 424 century-scale variability, 366-367 climate variability, 355-364, 533-534, 571, 600 deep convection, 420 deep-water production, 198, 236, 239, 290, 302, 314-316, 327, 366 density variations, 324, 347, 421, 436-439 dipole pattern, 124-125 fishery data, 571 fresh-water flux, 366, 367, 371, 379-389 Gulf Stream pattern, 125-128, 07 heat transport, 533, 534-535, 536-537 interannual variability, 318-3 l 9, 420-421 interdecadal variability, 318-327, 374-380, 421, 424, 432-441 models, 337-338, 355-364, 374-380, 432-441 ocean temperature, 319-323 overturning, 337-338, 358-359, 372, 375, 376, 433-434 plankton surveys, 563-564, 571 poleward heat transport, 356, 379 pressures, 424 proxy records, 537-541 salinity, 21, 121, 131, 190, 191, 207, 239, 254, 290-294, 302, 309-314, 319-326, 359, 367, 434-436, 534-535, 600 sea level pressures, 260, 420 structural changes, 420, 533-543 surface circulation, 537-541 surface temperatures, 122-128, 131, 139, 191, 260, 321-322, 420, 424, 433-436, 510, 533, 581 topography, 380 thermohaline circulation, 261, 337-338, 359-360, 366-383, 375-379, 380-381, 433-434, 534 ventilation, 291 winds, 249-250, 366, 424, 600 winter climate, 120- 132, 424 Younger Dryas cooling event, 190-191, 367 North Atlantic Oscillation, 126- 127, 130, 311, 312, 314, 317 North Dakota, snow cover, 61 North Pacific Ocean atmospheric circulation, 21, 347, 472-474, 475, 476-478 climate shifts, 14, 15, 21, 146-147, 148, 600 decadal-scale variability, 416, 472-482 ecosystem changes, 473 ENSO effects, 473, 478-481 heat exchanges, 142-143, 478, 478 mixed-layer depth, 140, 142-143 model, 347-349, 426 North American teleconnections, 472, 474, 475-477 ocean circulation, 475 pressure anomalies, 137, 139, 473, 474-476 salinity, 302 seasonal considerations, 475-476, 477-478 subarctic gyre, 276 subtropical gyre, 134 Sverdrup transport, 473, 475, 480, 481 temperature, 14, 78, 134, 138, 141, 142-144, 145-146, 206, 246, 426, 473-474, 475-476, 478 Tropical Pacific climate and, 473, 478-480 wind stresses, 472, 474, 475, 476, 482 North Sea, 267, 538-539, 559, 563, 564, 568-569 Northeast Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW) , 297, 298, 300, 301, 302 Northern Gyre, 309 Northern Hemisphere aerosol forcings, 94, 208 atmospheric circulation, 121 decadal-scale climate variations, 356 halocarbons, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282 heat transport, 261 instrumental record for, 422-423 krypton concentrations, 279 Little Ice Age, 38 pressure, 479 snow cover, 50, 54, 58, 62, 63, 64-65, 79 snowfall, 73-74 temperatures, 18-21, 73-74, 79, 82, 200-202, 204-207, 208, 209, 356, 513-514, 515, 518-519, 520, 535 Northern Oscillation, 459 Northwest Atlantic Bottom Water (NWABW)
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From page 624... ...
See also Coupled general-circulation models Barents-Greenland Sea, 131 biogeochemical processes, 351 INDEX Boolean delay equation, 255 sub-grid-scale parameterizations, boundary conditions, 337, 367-368, 339-354 381, 385-386, 391, 392, 393 temperatures, 141, 374, 386-388, boundary wave guide, 351 390-391 Bryan-Cox OGCM, 374, 385 thermally dominated regimes, 360-362 century time scales, 370 thermocline maintenance, 426 cloudiness, 141 thermohaline circulation, 121, constraints, 380, 426 355-364, 366, 367-374, 385-397, current velocities, 389-390 399, 427, 433, 601 data sources, 134-135, 140-141 decadal-to-interdecadal variability, 370-373 diffusive time-scale variability, 368-370 ecosystem, 351-352 forcing agents, 15, 140, 141, 148 fresh-water fluxes, 368, 369, 370, 373, 380 Hasselmann's model, 336, 357-358, 361,363, 364, 430 heat-flux parameterization, 135-136, 141, 381, 391 ICE-3G, 235 interior vertical mixing, 348-350 intermediate-water formation, 382-383 internal ocean variability, 365-383 marine-weather-data adjustments, 141-142 material property mixing, 351 meridional overturning, 340 mesoscale eddies, 341-344, 380 mixed-layer depth, 140, 142-143, 145-146, 150 Modular Ocean Model, 385-386 North Atlantic circulation, 366, 373, 374-380 North Pacific basin, 15, 134-135, 140-147 numerical models, 374-375, 384 Oberhuber isopycnic ocean, 133-135, 140-147 overturning variability, 370-372 planetary boundary layers, 344-348, 353 planetary geostrophic model, 370 principles, 340-341 runoff component, 380, 406 salinity, 140, 141, 149, 358, 374, 386, 391, 392-393 sectoral, 427, 428 sea-ice parameterization, 351 semi-Lagrangian approaches, 354 spin-up period, 140-141, 368 stochastic forcing, 398-406 Stommel's model, 324, 337, 356-357, 358-359, 360, 363 stratification of layers, 363 topography component, 350-351, 374, 380, 382, 430 turbulent kinetic energy, 140, 141 two-hemisphere sector, 385-397 types and applications, 336-338 vertical diffusivity, 340, 346-347, 389-390 wind stresses, 140, 141, 374, 380, 386, 399 wind/temperature relationships, 124 zonally symmetric forcing, 382 Ocean Polar Front, 319, 322 Ocean temperature. See also Sea surface temperature annual mean, 319-323 atmospheric circulation and, 119 averaging, 320-321 deep-water, 322-324, 327 interdecadal variability, 239, 318-323 Labrador Sea, 300-301 North Atlantic Ocean, 319-324 and plankton abundance, 563, 565, 566 and salinity, 285, 294, 319-324, 402 speed-of-sound measurements of, 238, 273 tides and, 106 time series, 237 upper ocean, 319-322 Ocean Weather Ship/Station Bravo, 297, 299, 313, 325, 326 Charlie, 319-323, 325, 326, 327 India, 433, 434 Papa, 347 S
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From page 625... ...
See also Rainfall; Snowfall area averaging, 71, 72-75, 76 century-scale changes, 69, 74-75, 76 data processing, 70-71 decade-scale changes, 74 gauges, 68, 71, 77 global, 195 greenhouse warming and, 18 instrument record, 10 interannual variability, 12, 69, 73-74, 75, 76 land, 195 mean annual, 69 measurement, 68-71, 74-76, 77 networks, 69-70, 76 North America, 14, 67-71, 74-76 proxy records, 521, 551 quality of data, 14 regional shifts or jumps, 600 sea surface temperature and, 191, 255, 261 snow cover and, 50 soil mosture and, 414 streamflow and, 74-75 topography and, 68 volcanic eruptions and, 195 Pressure anomalies, 255, 310-311 and atmospheric circulation, 116, 117, 118 ENSO phenomenon and, 459, 460, 462-466, 479-480 and heat fluxes, 137 North Atlantic, 420, 424 North Pacific, 473, 474-476 and salinity, 310-311, 316 sea level, 112, 116, 124-127, 137, 202, 248, 255, 260, 308, 367, 420, 424, 459, 460, 462-466, 473, 474-476, 479-480, 527-528, 532 sea surface temperature and, 124-128, 191 and storm tracks, 137 surface, 116, 117, 118 and Tasmanian climate, 527-528, 432 teleconnections, 260, 261 and winds, 119, 124-127, 248, 308 zonally asymmetric fields, 117 Projections of climate change, 18, 74 Proxy records. See also Ice cores; Paleoclimatic record; Tree-ring records atmospheric, 492-493 defined, 7 ENSO phenomenon, 453-454, 459, 460-461, 471 future of, 494 history of, 490-491 integration of information from, 31 interpretation, 420, 490 limitations, 31, 420, 425, 453, 493-494 model validation with, 427, 429, 493 needs, 602 North Atlantic circulation, 537-541 oceanic, 491-492, 537-541 for rainfall, 37, 43 recommendations, 607 span, 18 temperature reconstructions from, 7 18, 23-27, 31, 117-118 types and applications, 420, 490 Puget Sound, 473 Puerto Chicama, Peru, 500-501 Puerto Rico, 499 Punta Pitt, Isla San Cristobal, 500-501 Quelccaya Ice Cap, 24, 27-28, 29, 31, 454, 461, 547, 549-550, 554 Radar altimeters, 238 Radiation balance, modeling, 165 Radiative-convective models, 92, 165, 347, 348 Radiative transfer heat fluxes and, 136 ice-albedo feedback and, 1, 165 Rainfall.
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From page 626... ...
, 62, 64 Scatterometers, 238 Scotland-Iceland Ridge, 283 Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 561, 566-567 Sea-air feedbacks, 134, 362 Sea ice and air temperatures, 189, 251, 551 anomalies, 254, 255, 257, 258 Arctic climate cycle and, 129, 254-255, 424 boundary areas, 244-245 data sources, 243, 247, 251, 252, 254, 258 decadal-scale fluctuations, 13, 189, 254 drift speeds, 258, 314 extent, 121, 130, 231, 254, 255-256, 258-259, 367 formation, 289 GISST data set, 227-228, 242-247 great ice and salinity anomalies (GISAs) , 255-261, 311-312 index, 131, 167 interannual variability, 254 models/modeling, 140, 351, 399, 426, 433 and North Atlantic Oscillation, 130 North Pacific climate and, 473 runoff and, 257-259 and salinity, 131, 255-261, 262, 311-312, 441 and sea level, 272 and sea surface temperature, 129, 223, 224, 226, 231, 244-245, 248, 260 snow cover on, 61, 62 and surface albedo, 260 wind and, 258, 262 Sea level acceleration of change, 267-270 and ENSO signal, 230, 271 low-frequency variations, 267, 270, 272 models, 265 post-glacial rebound, 265 pressure, 112, 116, 124-127, 137, 202, 248, 255, 308, 367, 420, 424, 459, 460, 462-466, 527-528 quasi-biennial oscillation, 229-230, 270-271, 426 records, 237, 265-266 sea ice and, 272 seasonal variation, 272 vertical crust movements and, 265 and wind-stress curl, 272 Sea surface temperature (SST)
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From page 627... ...
, 231 Seawater density changes, 300-301 speed-of-sound measurements in, 238, 273 UNESCO equations of state, 399 Sediments/sedimentation anthropogenic influences on fish populations, 562 bioturbation, 538 deep-sea, 314-315, 381, 425, 491, 536, 538, 574 ice-volume changes, 574 lakes, 491, 510, 534 ocean-circulation reconstructions, 535 rates, 491-492 and thermohaline circulation, 314-315 time scales for, 235 verve chronologies, 43, 492, 493 Severnaya Zemlya Ice Cap, 554 Siberia runoff, 255, 257, 262 temperatures, 200, 201, 206 Siberian River, 255 Signal detection. See Climate-signal detection Snow cover albedo and, 50, 53, 54, 57 annual variability, 61, 64, 65 and atmospheric circulation, 50-58, 414 century time scales, 54-57 and climate change, 54, 60 and cloud cover, 52, 54, 56 and cyclones, 52 decadal variations, 49, 54-57, 60-66 depth, 61, 62, 65 distribution, 50, 52, 62 duration, 61, 64, 65 ENSO link, 53-54 feedback effects, 15, 52 historic in situ data, 61, 65 on ice, 61, 64 interannual variations, 51 marginal snow zone, 55 measurement problems, 14, 54, 61, 78 microwave charting, 62-63, 64 modeling studies, 52-54, 56-57, 58 NASA microwave files, 14, 61-62, 64 and natural climate variability, 49-59 NOAA weekly charts, 14, 58, 61, 63-64, 65, 79 observational studies, 50-52, 54-56, 61-65 and precipitation forecasts, 50 and rainfall, 51-52, 53 and runoff, 55 satellite data, 14, 54, 61-65 and seasonal cycles, 54, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66 short-wave charting, 61, 62 and soil moisture, 53, 54 span of records, 55 and temperature, 52, 53, 54-55, 57, 79, 90-92 and upper-air geopotential, 53 water equivalent, 61, 62, 68 Snow gauges, 54, 69, 71 Snow melt/melting, 50, 55 Snow products, 61, 63-64, 65-66 Snowfall area averaging, 71-72, 73, 76 data processing, 70-71 decade-scale changes, 73-74, 77-78 and ENSO events, 55 interannual, 72, 76, 78-79 measurement, 68, 69, 71-73, 78 rates, 53 scale corrections, 71-73 temperature and, 73-74, 78-79 water equivalent, 69, 71 Soil moisture greenhouse gases and, 93 and precipitation, 43, 414 snow cover and, 54, 57 and temperature, 53, 57, 89-90, 93 Solar radiation and temperature, 90-92 top of the atmosphere, 90-92 Sondankyla, Finland, 86, 87 Soudano-Guinean Zone, rainfall, 34, 38 Sound-fixing and ranging (SOFAR)
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From page 628... ...
See also Seasons and seasonal cycles continent-ocean contrasts, 112, 114-115 precipitation, 12, 46 temperatures, 25, 27, 28, 29, 117-118, 167, 492, 517-520 wave trains, 114 Sunspot cycles and carbon dioxide, 97-99 decadal-scale variations, 98 and ENSO phenomenon, 193, 443, 509 Gleisberg, 192, 529, 532 Hale, 192 Maunder Minimum, 192, 196, 529-530 Medieval Solar Maximum, 529, 530 and natural climate variability, 188, 191-193, 197, 198 and ocean circulation, 503 periodicities, 192 proxy records, 192, 491, 529 response detection, 176, 178-179 Sporer Minimum, 529-530 and temperatures, 15, 97-99, 178-179, 192-193, 529-530, 532, 600 and ultraviolet radiation, 193, 194, 197 Surface albedo. See also Snow cover and rainfall, 46, 47 sea ice and, 260 snow and, 50, 53, 54, 57, 62 and temperatures, 51-52, 93 Surface drifters, 238 Surface temperature.
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From page 629... ...
See also individual oceans and regions coral records, 495-505 lake levels and surface areas and, 506-511 monitoring, 495-505 Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program, 239, 303, 336, 421, 423 Tropical Pacific Ocean climate shifts, 21 coral records of changes in, 496-505 interannual variability, 1, 502 models, 140 and North Pacific climate, 478-480 and sea level variations, 270-271 temperature, 145, 246, 247, 448 Tropical storms/disturbances African rainfall and, 47 tracks, 115-116, 118, 119, 137, 473, 478 U.S.
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See also Atmospheric circulation anomalies, 112-113, 249 balanced frictional flow, 248 calculation, 119 curl, 475 easterlies, 127 ENSO forcing, 452, 500 equatorial zonal, 191 geostrophic, 248 and heat fluxes, 136, 190, 440 marine, 119, 248-250 North Atlantic, 249-250 North Pacific, 474, 475, 476 northerlies, 310, 313, 474, 476 pressure and, 119, 124, 125-126, 248 and sea ice, 258, 262 speeds, 249-250 sunspot cycles and, 191 and temperature, 90-92, 121, 124-125, 127, 128, 140-141, 142, 147-148, 307, 600 trade, 124, 202, 499, 503 upper-level, 41, 112-113 westerlies, 116-117, 124, 127, 508, 571 zonal, 124-125, 386 Winter atmospheric circulation, 112, 113, 114, 118 cyclones, 311 Little Ice Age, 420 North Atlantic Ocean climate, 120-132, 291, 311 precipitation, 12 pressure, 310-311, 312 rainfall, 117 temperatures, 12, 28, 221, 312 World Climate Research Program (WCRP) , 55, 319, 336 World Glacier Monitoring Service, 16, 55-56 World Meteorological Organization, 81, 277 World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)
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Key Terms
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