Meeting the Challenges of Megacities in the Developing World A Collection of Working Papers (1996) / Chapter Skim
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Water and Sanitation Services for Megacities in the Developing World
Water and Sanitation Services for Megacities in the Developing World
Pages 35-64
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World Development.
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World Development.
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House, W ire 1987. Labor market differentiation In a developing economy: An example from urban Juba, Southern Sudan.
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Psacharopoulos, G
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World Development.
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Water and Sanitation Services for Megacities in the Developing World A Working Paper Water Science and Technology Board Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources
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Lynn, Cornell University Rebecca T Parkin, American Public Health Association Peter P
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Brezonik, Water Resources Research Center, St. Paul, Minnesota John Briscoe, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
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National Research Council parted focused on five areas that should receive the attention of national governments, external aid agencies; technical consultants; scientists; technicians; providers of water, wastewater, and over sanitation services; heady services; and the leaders of the affected communities. (As used here, the term "sustainable" simply means Mat the services are capable of being continued over tune without deterioration.)
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It follows that providers of drinking water and wastewater services should strive to become financially sound and selfsuff~cient entities that can collect revenues Tom customers sufficient to maintain and expand system services as needed.
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REVIEW OF THE CURRENT Sll UATION After the United Nations declared the 1980s the Drinking Water Supply amd Sanitation Decade, concerted efforts were made by both governments and external support agencies to improve the delivery of drinking water and sanitation services In developing countries (Un~ted Nations Development Programme, 1994~. Yet while the coverage of urban drinking water services ho improved over the last decade, the number of urban residents without adequate means to dispose of Heir household wastes has continued to grow Dvorak Bank, 1992)
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I< | 1990 Or .~ej=;—,~4~ ti;~:~4~ ' ~^t; i ~~ If;| l _ ~ 1, .~,,,~i~~ ; it;—Pq'1 it_ ; FIGURE 1 Access to water and sanitation service in urban areas of developing countnes, 1980 and 1990. Sanitation service in this figure indicates public sewers.
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However, part of the reason for We perceived lack of demand for wastewater services is that very few options have been available or presented to unserved communities. The heath consequences of inadequate drinking water and wastewater services fall most heavily on the poor.
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Historically, high subsidies in many countries have allowed large numbers of people to have access to drinking water and wastewater services at artificially low cost. While subsidies for these services are often promoted as antipoverty measures, the beneficiaries tend to be the wealthier residents of the city.
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APPROACHES TO IMPROVED SERVICES Improved Sanitation Progress ire improving public health requires parallel and integrated improvements to drinking water supplies, wastewater management, and other aspects of sani~n. Sanitation is defined as the management of environmental conditions and He provision of services to prevent and control the spread of disease and enhance the welfare and wellbeing of human populations.
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This narrow view of sanitation diverts attention from important preventive strategies that are more appropriate for the rapidly growing cities of the developing world. To be effective in improving human health, programs for water supply, human waste disposal, and municipal wastewater management Chl1111~ hip WPl1 int-=rat-H wraith over environmental' health, and nutrition programs.
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This trend has been caused by a number of factors, including decreased emphasis on sanitation in public health programs, fewer specialized academic and continuing education programs, relatively low salaries for san~tarians, and a lack of knowledge and understanding by the public about sanitation services relative to other public services. The growing sanitation challenges of megacities require expanding the scientific and technical base of sanitation, developing systems to disseminate that information, and fielding trained workers to apply the knowledge and make it available to communities.
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When public water service is Adequate or nonexistent, people must obtain their water in other, much more expensive ways. Where public drinking water service or wastewater collection and disposal systems have not been made available, some communities, often aided by nongovernmental organizations, have become involved In the planning and delivery of these services.
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have combined win informal institutions (community groups and nongovernmental organizations) in producing low-cost, innovative wastewater collection services in Brazil.
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Given the general scarcity of public revenues, the levels of external funding historically provided for drinking water service are no longer available. Water authorities realize that Hey must look to their customers for the funds to construct, operate, and maintain improved facilities.
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(He would later describe this first step as the most important thing he did in Orangi, liberating the people, as he put it, from the immobilizing myths of government promises.) With a small amount of core external funding, the Orangi Pilot Project (OPP)
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This ensures that low-~ncome households have access to drinking water and wastewater services without compromising the financial viability of We water agency. The appropriate financing arrangements for wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal are complex because Me benefits perceived at the individual household level are different from those to larger aggregates of society.
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Since COBES had shown how it was, in fact, possible to serve the favelas, SABESP had no option but to respond. The lesson from Sao Paulo is Mat where institutions are responsive and innovative, progress can be made in the provision of water and wastewater services at hill cost to the poor.
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As discussed earlier, planning for drinking water and wastewater services should be well integrated with other health and nutritional programs. The effective application of technology depends on the existence of carefully considered performance criteria that are appropriate to the megacities of the developing world.
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The result can be contamination of water supplies and the spread of infectious disease. Thus planning for natural hazards should be part of any program to improve water and wastewater services Onstitute of Civil Engineers, 19951.
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Current surface water withdrawals may or may not have an impact on future use, but ground water withdrawals frequently do. A lack of control over industrial waste discharge and a lack of wastewater treatment invariably threaten the sustainability of surface and ground water resources.
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. Thus comprehensive ground water research, mon~tonng, and protection programs will be cost-effective investments in sustainability (e.g., see National Research Council, 1993b; National Research Council, 19951.
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Nonpotable reuse applications for reclaimed municipal wastewater may include agricultural instigation, ground water recharge (replenishment, salt water infusion barrier, subsidence control) , recreational uses (impoundments, lakes, fisheries, snowmaking)
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