From Scarcity to Visibility Gender Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers (2001) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
7: Gender Differences in Salary
7: Gender Differences in Salary
Pages 187-217
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 187... ...
argues that there is a strong presumption in science that recognition, including monetary rewards, should be determined on the basis of universalistic criteria related to scientific achievement. To the extent that female scientists and engineers receive fewer financial rewards than men for comparable achievements, their work is undervalued and they are underpaid.
|
From page 188... ...
While our analysis in earlier chapters found few gender differences in educational backgrounds, it is still possible that qualifications attained at the completion of formal education may be lower. Due to longer periods out of the labor force, women accumulate fewer years of experience and during periods of absence from S&E their skills may depreciate.
|
From page 189... ...
The differing characteristics of men and women, such as in experience and field of study, can explain much of the gross gender difference in salary. However, even with numerous controls, gender differences in salary remain.
|
From page 190... ...
The median salaries of male scientists and engineers have remained about 100 percent higher than those of full-time men in the general population, while the median income of female scientists and engineers have declined from being 200 percent greater than those of women in the general population in 1973 to around 150 percent greater in later years. This decline for doctoral women corresponds to a rise in income for women overall in the U.S.
|
From page 191... ...
US FT Labor Force S&E FT Labor Force 100 Percent Higher Median Income for Men 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 0 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 FIGURE 7-2 Percent greater median income for full-time, year-round workers in U.S. labor force and for full-time scientists and engineers.
|
From page 192... ...
In the remainder of this chapter, we decompose the overall gender differences in salaries, attempting to determine the degree to which men and women with similar characteristics are paid differently. PROFESSIONAL AGE AND DOCTORAL COHORT While there has been no improvement since 1973 in the pay discrepancy between the average male and female scientist or engineer, we know from Chapters 3 and 4 that the average professional age of women is less than that of men.
|
From page 193... ...
found such an increase in a study of Ph.D.s from 1958-63 and 1967-72, and found convergence in income after women reentered the labor force. Panel A of Figure 7-3 plots the median salaries of men and women in 1973 by the number of years since the Ph.D.
|
From page 194... ...
NOTES: Median salary is computed using a 5-year moving average. Salaries have been converted to 1995 dollars.
|
From page 195... ...
, we find some evidence of a modest decrease in the salary differences for men and women in more recent years. While these results demonstrate that some of the overall gender difference in salaries can be explained by gender differences in professional age, substantial differences remain.
|
From page 196... ...
For example, career age for women is more likely to over-estimate professional experience than for men. Using data from 1983, Lewis found that career interruptions had equal effects on the salaries of male and female scientists and engineers, but that women were more likely to have interruptions.
|
From page 197... ...
used the 1984 National Survey of Faculty sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation (1984) and found that the negative effects of gender composition persisted after control for individual characteristics and labor market conditions.
|
From page 198... ...
70 Phy95 Mth95 Lif95 60 Med95 SB95 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Percent Female Panel B: 1995 FIGURE 7-6 Relationship between median salary and percent female, by field and year of survey. NOTE: Eng = engineering; Phy = physical sciences; Mth = mathematics; Lif = life sciences; Med = medical sciences; SB = social and behavioral sciences.
|
From page 199... ...
EMPLOYMENT SECTOR AND PRIMARY WORK ACTIVITY Figures 7-8 and 7-9 plot median salaries by sector of employment and primary work activity. In each year the salaries are highest in industry, which in large part explains the higher overall salaries of engineers.
|
From page 200... ...
200 FROM SCARCITY TO VISIBILITY 1973 1979 1989 1995 100 90 Median Salary in 1995 Dollars 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Industry Government NonProfit Academia FIGURE 7-8 Median salaries by sector of employment and year of survey. 1973 1979 1989 1995 100 90 Median Salary in 1995 Dollars 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Management Production Applied Professional Basic Teaching Research Services Research FIGURE 7-9 Median salaries by primary work activity and year of survey.
|
From page 201... ...
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SALARY 201 1973 1979 1989 1995 40 35 Percent Higher Salary for Men 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Industry Government NonProfit Academia FIGURE 7-10 Percent higher median salaries for male Ph.D.s, by sector of employment and year of survey. 1973 1979 1989 1995 40 35 Percent Higher Salary for Men 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Management Production Applied Professional Basic Teaching Research Services Research FIGURE 7-11 Percent higher median salaries for male Ph.D.s, by primary work activity and year of survey.
|
From page 202... ...
There are also differences among sectors and work activities in the degree to which men receive higher salaries than women. Figure 7-10 shows that the salary advantages for men are greatest in the nonprofit sector, with a steady increase from 23 percent in 1973 to 32 percent in 1995.
|
From page 203... ...
The third set of bars adds field of doctoral study, reducing the adjusted gender difference by only 1 point in 1973, with decreases of over 5 points in 1989 and 1995. The male salary advantage continues to drop as controls for sector and primary work activity are added.
|
From page 204... ...
Gender Only is the percentage difference in mean salaries; +Age adds controls for professional age and age squared; +Field adds dummy variables for the field of Ph.D.; +Sector adds dummy variables for the sector of employment; and +PWA adds controls for primary work activity.
|
From page 205... ...
Figure 7-14 shows the percentage difference in salaries for men and women in industry after controlling for age, field, and work activity. With all controls, shown by the set of bars labeled "+PWA", the higher salaries for men are reduced from an 18 percent to a 7 percent advantage in 1973; in 1979 the male advantage was over 15 percent even with controls.
|
From page 206... ...
206 FROM SCARCITY TO VISIBILITY 1973 1979 1989 1995 30 Percent Higher Salary for Men 25 20 15 10 5 0 Gender Only +Age +Field +PWA FIGURE 7-14 Gender differences in salary for those with industrial jobs, controlling for age, field, and work activity, by year of survey. 1973 1979 1989 1995 30 25 Percent Higher Salary for Men 20 15 10 5 0 Gender Only +Age +Field +PWA FIGURE 7-15 Gender differences in salary for those with government jobs, controlling for age, field, and work activity, by year of survey.
|
From page 207... ...
The results labeled "+Age" show that the increasing overall differences in academic salaries during this period were due to the younger professional age of women in academia. Controlling for professional age substantially decreases the salary advantage for men, particularly in 1979 and later.
|
From page 208... ...
208 FROM SCARCITY TO VISIBILITY 1973 1979 1989 1995 30 Percent Higher Salary for Men 25 20 15 10 5 0 Gender +Age +Field +Carnegie +PWA +Family Only Panel A: Organized by control variable Gender Only +Age +Field +Carnegie +PWA +Family 30 Percent Higher Salary for Men 25 20 15 10 5 0 1973 1979 1989 1995 Panel B: Organized by year of survey FIGURE 7-16 Percentage higher salaries for academic men after controlling for structural variables, by year of survey. NOTE: Gender Only is the percentage difference in mean salaries; +Age adds controls for professional age and age squared; +Field adds dummy variables for the field of Ph.D.; +Carnegie adds dummy variables for Carnegie class of employer; +PWA adds controls for primary work activity; +Family adds controls for married with young children (not available in 1973)
|
From page 209... ...
Figure 7-16 shows that adding controls for Carnegie type to the regression containing professional age and field does not substantially reduce the overall gender differences in salary. However, if we examine the gender difference within each type of institution, we find some important differences.
|
From page 210... ...
Tenure Track Faculty at Research Universities Our findings above have shown that a great deal of the overall gender differences in salaries can be accounted for by the differing professional ages of men and women in academia, with smaller reductions introduced by controls for field, type of institution, and work activity. This section provides a more detailed analysis of faculty with tenure-track positions in research universities (i.e., Research I or Research II universities according to the Carnegie classification)
|
From page 211... ...
In 1979 (shown by the solid line) , there was an increase in the salary advantage for men during years 1 through 5, a nearly constant 6 percent difference from year 5 till year 15, followed by increasing differences until a decline beginning in year 18 (which is based on a small number of female faculty)
|
From page 212... ...
NOTE: Each year is computed as a 5-year moving average. 1979 1989 1995 15 Percent Higher Salary for Men 10 5 0 Assistant Professors Associate Professors Full Professors FIGURE 7-19 Percent higher salaries for tenure-track men, by rank and year of survey.
|
From page 213... ...
The second set of bars for each year adds controls for characteristics of the scientists, including field, prestige of the Ph.D., elapsed time from baccalaureate to Ph.D., whether the employing institution is public or private, the prestige rating of the individual's department, and whether it is a Research I university. Significantly, this substantially increases the predicted gender differences in salaries, with predicted differences in salary of 12 percent in 1979, 8 percent in 1989, and 10 percent in 1995.
|
From page 214... ...
"Adding Field, Ph.D., and Job" adds controls for field, prestige of the Ph.D., elapsed time from baccalaureate to Ph.D., whether the employing institution is public or private, and whether it is a Research I university and the prestige rating of the individual's department. "Adding Publications" adds the number of scientific publications.
|
From page 215... ...
SUMMARY This chapter presents a lot of detailed information that reflects the complexities of the scientific and engineering labor market. Salary is closely related to the outcomes analyzed in earlier chapters: professional age, sector of employment, and work activity.
|
From page 216... ...
But we can think of no compelling reason why other variables that we might like to have had, or to have measured better, would account for the remaining differences in salary. Moreover, while comparing men and women who are more similar reduces much of the overall salary difference, this does not change the fact that overall, women have significantly less well paying jobs in sciences.
|
From page 217... ...
Clearly, more research is necessary -- not only on faculty salaries but also on gender differences in other employment sectors -- in order to assess the effects of discrimination against women at each step in the stratification process.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.