Environmentally Significant Consumption Research Directions (1997) / Chapter Skim
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3 TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS
3 TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS
Pages 26-72
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From page 26... ...
Although these units are not always good proxies for environmental impacts, the analysis provides a first approximation to importance by showing which human-environment interactions are the largest; by identifying trends, it highlights the materials that are likely to be increasing or decreasing as environmental problems. For instance, many materials used in bulk, such as steel and wood, are becoming less important aspects of economic activity, and special-purpose materials used in lesser quantity, such as special alloys, plastics, and coated papers, are becoming more important (see Larson et al., 1986)
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From page 27... ...
This sort of analysis, combined with information on the perunit environmental impacts of the production and consumption of particular materials, can suggest which kinds of consumption are likely to remain, or to become, environmentally important. David Allen's report focuses on wastes, including air pollutants as well as solid wastes.
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From page 28... ...
Noting that various market research firms have developed household classifications for short-term marketing purposes, Duchin suggests that a similar form of classification might be useful for detailed analysis of household consumption, including environmentally significant consumption. She notes that developing classification schemes for different countries may help illuminate the kinds of broad changes in household consumption patterns occurring in developing countries.
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From page 29... ...
Since the oil price shocks of the 1970s many have studied energy consumption at the national level, examining consumption trends over time, the mix of fuels used, and alternatives for the future (United Nations, 1978; World Energy Conference, 1974)
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From page 30... ...
waste streams, the high toxicity of relatively trivial masses of industrial effluent, and the acreage disturbed in extracting both renewable and nonrenewable resources. Nonetheless, kilograms and tons provide objective measures for grasping the sheer quantities of bulk materials mobilized to serve society and the relative sizes of different materials classes.
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From page 31... ...
FIGURE 3-2 Annual per capita consumption of physical structure materials: United States 1900-1991. Physical structure materials are here defined as construction minerals, industrial minerals, forestry products.
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From page 32... ...
Heavy materials such as steel, copper, lead, and lumber, all materials used for infrastructure, became less critical to economic growth over the course of this century. Paper seems to track economic activity in lockstep, conserv FIGURE 3-3 Materials intensity of use: United States 1900-1990.
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From page 33... ...
Foreign trade in raw materials accounts for about 10 percent of U.S. materials flows.
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From page 34... ...
Thus the relationship of number of persons to materials consumed is not simply proportional, reflecting settlement patterns as well. This same relation holds true for energy consumption: the same number of people living in a larger number of residences consume more (Schipper, 1996)
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From page 35... ...
massive quantities consumed constructing roads and highways, slowing the rate is consequential to national consumption of materials like steel, asphalt, sand, and rock. Substituting lighter for heavier materials also puts downward pressure on national materials use.
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From page 36... ...
The combination of forces to reduce materials use in the industrialized countries drives a process that researchers have dubbed "dematerialization," or aggregate reductions in the amount of material needed to serve economic functions (Wernick et al., 1996)
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From page 37... ...
The demand for better performance, and hence greater sophistication in materials and goods, has lightened many products and is key to future trends in materials consumption and efforts in materials recovery. Research and development efforts must combine environmental objectives with consumption trends to reduce primary materials requirements, design products for recovery, and find uses for so-called wastes.
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From page 38... ...
United Nations 1978 World Energy Supplies 1972-1976. New York: United Nations.
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Annual Review of Energy and Envi ronment 12:99-149. World Energy Conference 1974 World Energy Conference Survey of Energy Resources.
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From page 40... ...
This summary provides a brief overview of the information available on waste generation and management. The sources and nature of industrial hazardous wastes, nonhazardous wastes, municipal solid wastes, and emissions of criteria and hazardous air pollutants will all be reviewed.
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From page 41... ...
Before then, approximately 830,000 tons of small-quantity generator hazardous wastes were disposed of in Subtitle D facilities every year. lIncludes only infectious hospital waste.
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From page 42... ...
Thus, direct releases to the environment, reported through the TRI, may be as significant in affecting environmental quality as RCRA TABLE 3-3 Sources of Releases and Transfers of Toxics Total Releases Standard and Transfers Industrial Classifications (millions (% of Industry Code of pounds) total)
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From page 43... ...
Classification Stone, clay, glass, and concrete products 32 55 0.75 Primary metal industries 33 1,200 17 Fabricated metal products, necb 34 340 4.7 Industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment 35 91 1.3 Electronic and other electrical equipment and components, necb 36 350 4.8 Transportation equipment 37 310 4.3 Measuring instruments, optical goods, watchesc 38 71 0.98 Miscellaneous manufacturing industries 39 34 0.46 Multiple manufacturing classifications Stone, etc. products/primary metal industries 32 and 33 37 0.51 Primary metals/fabricated metals 33 and 34 36 0.50 Chemical products/petroleum refining 28 and 29 35 0.49 Primary metals/electronic equipment 33 and 36 26 0.35 Chemical products/primary metals 28 and 33 25 0.35 Chemical products/rubber, plastic products 28 and 30 25 0.34 Food products/chemical products 20 and 28 20 0.28 Paper products/electronic equipment 26 and 36 17 0.24 Electronic equipment/transportation equipment 36 and 37 14 0.19 Fabricated metals/transportation equipment 34 and 37 11 0.15 Fabricated metals/electronic equipment 34 and 36 11 0.15 Primary metals/machinery 33 and 35 11 0.15 Other manufacturing industry combinations 20 to 39 170 2.3 Not classified as manufacturing No data, < 20, > 39 38 0.53 TOTAL 7,300 100 aFull description is as follows: Apparel and other finished products made from fabrics and other similar materials.
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From page 44... ...
While much attention has been focused on these materials, the quantities of these waste streams are just a few percent of the overall waste material flows in the United States. Industrial wastes generated in the production of commodity materials and the generation of power and fuel are far more extensive than post-consumer materials.
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From page 45... ...
5 4 3 2 Millions metric tons 1 TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS 0 Pulp and paper Chemicals Petroleum Stone, clay, glass Primary metals Other Particulates Sulfur oxides Nitrogen oxides VOCs Carbon monoxide FIGURE 3-7 Industrial sources of criteria air pollutants (United States, 1994)
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From page 46... ...
Studies in what has come to be called industrial ecology or industrial metabolism are probing the material efficiencies of large industrial systems, searching for ways to improve material and energy efficiencies. Although it may be argued that low rates of material reuse are due to the inherently low value of waste streams, data on waste compositions tell a different story.
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From page 47... ...
TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS 47 TABLE 3-4 Raw Material Consumption, Emissions, and Energy Use Associated with the Manufacture of 1 kg of Polyethylene Category Unit Average Fuels, MJ Coal 3.28 Oil 3.58 Gas 12.38 Hydro 0.54 Nuclear 1.67 Other 0.21 TOTAL 21.66 Feedstock, MJ Coal < 0.01 Oil 33.87 Gas 33.02 Wood < 0.01 TOTAL 66.89 TOTAL FUEL PLUS FEEDSTOCK 88.55 Raw materials, mg Iron ore 200 Limestone 150 Water 24,000,000 Bauxite 300 Sodium chloride 8,000 Clay 20 Ferro-manganese <1 Air emissions, mg Dust 3,000 Carbon monoxide 900 Carbon dioxide 1,250,000 Sulfur oxides 9,000 Nitrogen oxides 12,000 Hydrogen chloride 70 Hydrogen fluoride 5 Hydrocarbons 21,000 Other organics 1 Metals 5 Water emissions, mg COD 1500 BOD 200 Acid as H+ 60 Nitrates 5 Metals 250 Ammonium ions 5 Chloride ions 130 Dissolved organics 20 Suspended solids 500 Oil 200 Hydrocarbons 100 Dissolved solids 300 Phosphate 5 Other nitrogen 10 continued on next page
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From page 48... ...
1993 Using wastes as raw materials: Opportunities to create an industrial ecology. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials 10:273-277.
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From page 49... ...
U.S. Department of Energy 1994 Waste Generation in Industry, Draft, Office of Energy Efficiency, Washington, D.C.
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From page 50... ...
. Figure 3-8 shows carbon emissions per capita in OECD countries in 1973 and 1991 from energy-using activities, allocating the emissions from production of electricity and district heating to the end uses of those energy forms in proportion to final use (Schipper, Haas, and Sheinbaum, 1996; Scholl et al., 1996; Schipper, Scholl, and Price, in press; Schipper, Ting et al., 1996; Torvanger, 1991)
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TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS 51 FIGURE 3-8 Carbon emissions per capita in 8 OECD countries, 1972-1973 and 1991 by end use. NOTE: tcarbon = tons of carbon.
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From page 52... ...
Significantly, the energy intensity of automobile travel in the United States, which fell from the mid-1970s until 1991, has risen since then. The real, on-road fuel intensity of new cars and household light trucks is no longer lower than that of the fleet of the same vehicles, signaling the end of an era that had seen the rapid decline in the energy intensities of new vehicles.
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From page 53... ...
The dips in the evolution of aggregate emissions were caused mainly by declines in activity during periods of recession and higher fuel prices. Note that the predominant trend was toward greater per capita emissions, however, principally from automobiles, except in the United States Not surprisingly, aggregate carbon intensity (Figure 3-13)
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From page 54... ...
. FIGURE 3-13 Aggregate carbon intensity of travel in 10 OECD countries.
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From page 55... ...
Air travel energy intensity fell significantly in every country, but this change contributed marginally to total emissions, except in the United States. As a result of all of these changes combined, emissions per capita fell only in the United States, but increased in every other country, along with the share of carbon emissions from travel, as can be seen in Figure 3-11.
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From page 56... ...
Income-driven lifestyle changes during the past decades have raised energy use for pleasure -- i.e., for comfort and mobility. This is one way that lifestyle, as measured by the ownership and use of household equipment, travel, and visits to the service sector, continues to increase carbon emissions, even when those increases are less than proportional to income increases.
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From page 57... ...
Needless to add, the engine size, or horsepower, in Europe increased continuously, while the same parameters dropped and then slowly rebounded in the United States. Figure 3-15 contrasts with the data on space-heating intensity, which fell 25-50 percent in OECD countries -- so much so that even with modest increases in heated area, per capita space-heating energy use was lower in 1991 than in 1973 in almost all the countries we studied.
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From page 58... ...
FIGURE 3-16 Per capita car use in 8 OECD countries. Data include household light trucks in the United States, Britain, and Denmark.
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From page 59... ...
Lifestyle changes driven predominantly by higher incomes -- particularly increased automobility -- have consistently led to higher carbon emissions, and the trends in the travel sector show no signs of saturation. Because the energy intensity of travel is scarcely falling, coupling between life
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From page 60... ...
May 3-4, Washington, D.C. 1995 Automobile use and energy consumption in OECD countries.
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From page 61... ...
1991 Manufacturing sector carbon dioxide emissions in nine OECD countries 1973-1987. Energy Economics 13(2)
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From page 62... ...
Pp. 255-268 in The Energy Efficiency Challenge for Europe: Proceedings of the ECEEE Summer Study, Vol.
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From page 63... ...
There are many efforts under way to develop technologies that are more efficient in their use of energy and materials and that generate less environmental damage than current practices. In this paper our concern is especially with consumption patterns.
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From page 64... ...
THE LOGIC OF STRUCTURAL ECONOMICS There is a vast amount of literature indicating that consumer demand for specific goods levels off at higher incomes. However, prospects for overall saturation are far more ambiguous.
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From page 65... ...
, social accounting matrix (o occupations; h categories of household) , and natural resource accounts (r resources, w categories of wastes)
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From page 66... ...
schemes for goods and services produced on farms and in factories and offices are in wide use. These classification schemes have made it possible to share data, compare across studies and across countries, and cumulate results.
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From page 67... ...
Most Social Accounting Matrices (SAMs) have been constructed to examine the distribution of income in developing countries.
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From page 68... ...
68 ENVIRONMENTALLY SIGNIFICANT CONSUMPTION TABLE 3-5 Household Classifications and Characteristics for the United States in 1987 ZQ Cluster Description 1 Blue Blood Estates America's wealthiest neighborhoods includes suburban homes and one in ten millionaires 2 Money & Brains Posh big-city enclaves of townhouses, condos and apartments 3 Furs & Station Wagons New money in metropolitan bedroom suburbs 4 Urban Gold Coast Upscale urban high-rise districts 5 Pools & Patios Older, upper-middle-class, suburban communities 6 Two More Rungs Comfortable multi-ethnic suburbs 7 Young Influentials Yuppie, fringe-city condo and apartment developments 8 Young Suburbia Child-rearing, outlying suburbs 9 God's Country Upscale frontier boomtowns 10 Blue-Chip Blues The wealthiest blue-collar suburbs 11 Bohemian Mix Inner-city bohemian enclaves à la Greenwich Village 12 Levittown, USA Aging, post-World War II tract subdivisions 13 Gray Power Upper-middle-class retirement communities 14 Black Enterprise Predominantly black, middle- and upper-middle class neighborhoods 15 New Beginnings Fringe-city areas of singles complexes, garden apartments and trim bungalows 16 Blue-Collar Nursery Middle-class, child-rearing towns 17 New Homesteaders Exurban boom towns of young, midscale families 18 New Melting Pot New immigrant neighborhoods, primarily in the nation's port cities 19 Towns & Gowns America's college towns 20 Rank & File Older, blue-collar, industrial suburbs 21 Middle America Midscale, midsize towns 22 Old Yankee Rows Working-class rowhouse districts 23 Coalburg & Corntown Small towns based on light industry and farming 24 Shotguns & Pickups Crossroads villages serving the nation's lumber and breadbasket needs 25 Golden Ponds Rustic cottage communities located near the coasts, in the mountains or alongside lakes 26 Agri-business Small towns surrounded by large-scale farms and ranches 27 Emergent Minorities Predominantly black, working-class, city neighborhoods 28 Single City Blues Downscale urban singles districts 29 Mines & Mills Struggling steeltowns and mining villages 30 Back-Country Folks Remote, downscale, farm towns 31 Norma Rae-ville Lower-middle-class milltowns and industrial suburbs, primarily in the South 32 Smalltown Downtown Inner-city districts of small industrial cities 33 Grain Belt The nation's most sparsely populated rural communities
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From page 69... ...
TRACKING THE FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS 69 % U.S. Median Home % College Household Income Value Graduate 1.1 $70,307 $200,000+a 50.7 0.9 45,798 150,755 45.5 3.2 50,086 132,725 38.1 0.5 36,838 200,000+a 50.5 3.4 35,895 99,702 28.2 0.7 31,263 117,012 28.3 2.9 30,398 106,332 36.0 5.3 38,582 93,281 23.8 2.7 36,728 99,418 25.8 6.0 32,218 72,563 13.1 1.1 21,916 110,669 38.8 3.1 28,742 70,728 15.7 2.9 25,259 83,630 18.3 0.8 33,149 68,713 16.0 4.3 24,847 75,354 19.3 2.2 30,077 67,281 10.2 4.2 25,909 67,221 15.9 0.9 22,142 113,616 19.1 1.2 17,862 60,891 27.5 1.4 26,283 59,363 9.2 3.2 24,431 55,605 10.7 1.6 24,808 76,406 11.0 2.0 23,994 51,604 10.4 1.9 24,291 53,222 9.1 5.2 20,140 51,537 12.8 2.1 21,363 49,012 11.5 1.7 22,029 45,187 10.7 3.3 17,926 62,351 18.6 2.8 21,537 46,325 8.7 3.4 19,843 41,030 8.1 2.3 18,559 36,556 9.6 2.5 17,206 42,225 10.0 1.3 21,698 45,852 8.4 continued on next page
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From page 70... ...
Central Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia 1990 Social Accounting Matrix for Indonesia, 1985. Jakarta, Indonesia.
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From page 71... ...
Keuning, S., and W De Ruijter 1988 Guidelines to the construction of a social accounting matrix.
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From page 72... ...
1986 Social accounting: The state of play. Scandinavian Journal of Economics: 453-472.
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