Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997) / Chapter Skim
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See also Puberty ages 9 through 13 years, 34, 41, 99-106, 169-173, 210-218, 268-269, 303; see also Puberty ages 14 through 18 years, 34, 99-106, 169-173, 179, 180, 186-187, 210-218, 219, 239, 240, 241, 303 413 Body Mass Index, 36 bone mass, 102, 104, 105 bone mineral content, 100, 101-102, 103, 133-134 bone mineral density, 100, 102, 103, 104-105 calcium, 41, 73, 75, 87, 99-106, 143, 144, 215, 324, 396 fluoride, 295, 296, 303 indicators used to set AIs, 100-105 indicators used to set EARs, 169-172, 210-212 lactation, 133-134, 179, 180, 241 magnesium, 194, 195, 206, 210-213, 214 215, 216-219, 240, 241, 244-246, 268 phosphorus, 154, 159, 165, 169-173, 177 178, 179, 180, 184-185, 186, 187-189, 321 pregnancy, 114, 177-178, 239, 240, 276 RDAs, 172-173, 218, 219, 239 supplements, 96-97, 215 ULs, 141-142, 188, 244-246, 285, 310-311 vitamin D, 262, 268-269, 276, 277, 284 285, 286 weights and heights, reference, 35-36 Adults, 19 through 30 years Body Mass Index, 36, 37 bone mass, peak, 34, 106-107 calcium, 75-76, 87, 106-109, 111, 397 derivation of DRls for, 34-35
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From page 414... ...
414 energy expenditure, 34-35 fluoride, 289, 303 indicators used to set AIs, 107-108, 269 270 indicators used to set EARs, 173-174, 219-221 lactation, 179, 241 magnesium, 219-223, 239, 241, 244-246 phosphorus, 173-175, 177-179, 186-187, 188-189 RDAs, 173, 175, 179, 223, 239 ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311 vitamin D, 269-271, 281-283 weights and heights, reference, 36 Adults, 31 through 50 years calcium, 109-110, 398 derivation of DRls for, 34-35 energy metabolism, 35 fluoride, 303 indicators used to set AIs, 109-110, 269 270 indicators used to set EARs, 173-174, 223-226 lactation, 179, 241 magnesium, 207, 223-228, 239, 241, 244 246 phosphorus, 173-175, 177-179, 186-187 RDAs, 175, 179, 228, 239 ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311 vitamin D, 269-271, 281-283 Adults, 51 through 70 years bone loss, 271-272 bone mineral density, 112, 113-114 calcium, 111-115 derivation of DRls for, 35 energy expenditures, 35 fluoride, 303 indicators used to set EARs, 228 indicators used to set AIs, 111-114, 271 272 magnesium, 228-231, 244-246 phosphorus, 154, 175-176 RDAs, 176, 231 ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311 vitamin D, 263, 271-272, 281-283 Adults, +70 years bone mineral density, 116 calcium, 87-88, 115-117, 142 INDEX fluoride, 303 fracture rates, 115-116 indicators used to set AIs, 115-116, 231 232, 273-274 magnesium, 195, 200, 201-202, 203, 204, 207, 231-234, 245 phosphorus, 154, 175-176, 188 RDAs, 176, 233-234 ULs, 142, 188, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311 vitamin D, 255, 273-274, 287 Adverse effect, 52, 63 African Americans blood pressure, 89 bone mass, 73 bone mineral content, 97 bone fractures, 73, 90 calcium, 73, 80, 89, 100 lactose intolerance, 80 magnesium, 195 phosphorus, 149 puberty, 34 vitamin D, 260, 263, 269, 270 Alcohol consumption and alcoholism, 157, 191, 193, 200, 203, 204, 206, 207 Aluminum, 148, 157, 219, 243, 245 American Academy of Pediatrics, 32, 33, 295, 305 American Dental Association, 295, 304, 305 Anemia, 157 Animal studies extrapolation of data from, 54, 57, 62-63 relevance of, 63, 65-66 Anorexia, 157, 280 Antacids, 139, 148, 157, 243, 245 Asians blood pressure, 89 calcium, 89, 98 magnesium, 200 osteoporosis, 83, 200 vitamin D, 264, 266 Atherosclerosis, 198, 249 Athletes, 188, 195, 316 B Balance studies. See also Calcium balance studies adolescents, 169, 212, 214-215 adults, 228, 229, 271 calcium, 314 children, 164, 168, 211-212
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See also Hypertension Body mass. See Lean body mass Body Mass Index, 36 Bone biologically significant nutrients, 38-39, 288-289 collagen by-products, 258 malignancy, 278 matrix proteins, 38-39 metabolism, 41, 38-39, 71, 99-100, 120, 144, 201, 254, 257-258, 284-285 pain, 157 remodeling, 41, 71, 86-87, 88, 102, 114, 289 Bone fracture calcium and, 6, 9, 13, 76, 83, 84-85, 90, 112-113, 115-116, 121, 123, 126-127, 144, 314-315 fluoride and, 300 gender differences, 90 hip, 47-48, 76, 83, 85, 121, 127 lactation and, 123, 126-127 older adults, 115-116 415 osteoporotic, 9, 47-48, 83, 84-85 predictors of risk, 85 race/ethnicity and, 73, 83, 84-85, 90 vitamin D and, 260, 273, 274 Bone loss caffeine and, 76 calcium intakes and, 75, 76, 77-80, 82-83, 87-88, 112 lactation and, 122 menopausal status and, 77-80 sodium and, 75 vitamin D and, 271-272 Bone mass adults, 86, 105, 106-107 calcium intake and, 13, 15, 74, 85-87 children, 85, 89 fluoride and, 307 and fractures, 13 gender and, 106-107 measurements, 9, 85-86, 89, 102, 104 peak, 34, 86, 87, 102, 106-107, 259 physical activity and, 74-75 race/ethnicity and, 73 vitamin D and, 259, 263-264, 271-272, 278 Bone mineral content (BMC)
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, 12, 115-117, 118-119, 127 physical activity and, 74-75, 76 pregnancy and, 12, 15, 20, 72, 89-90, 117, 120-122, 127, 132 puberty and, 49, 71, 99-100 racial/ethnic differences, 73, 100 sexual maturity and, 99-100 special considerations, 115, 127, 132 young adults, 108-109, 111
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INDEX Calcium balance studies, 215, 314 AI derivation, 6-7, 9, 15, 48-50, 93-94, 9697, 100-101, 105, 107-108, 109-110, 111-115 adults, middle age, 109-110, 113, 114 bone mass measurements and, 86 children, 96-97, 98 infants, 92, 93-94 methodological considerations, 40-41, 50, 88 pregnancy, 120 protein interaction, 75-76 research recommendations, 144-145 uncertainties in values from, 7, 50, 91 young adults, 75-76, 107-108, 109 Calcium deficiency, 182, 183 amenorrheic women, 76 and bone loss, 75, 76, 77-80, 82-83, 132 133 and fractures, 6, 9, 13, 76, 83, 84-85, 90, 112-113, 115-116, 121, 123, 126-127, 314-315 lactose intolerance and, 80 and osteopenia, 83 and osteoporosis, 9, 47-48, 76, 82, 83, 84 85, 113, 115 and prostate cancer, 13 Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention trial, 89-90 Calcium intakes and absorption of calcium, 71, 72, 97, 100 adolescents, 105-106, 194, 324, 396 adults, middle age, 194, 398 bioavailability, 47-48, 73-74, 80, 92 and bone mass, 13, 15, 74, 85-88, 106 107 and bone mineral content, 6, 7, 15, 38, 78-79, 98 and bone mineral density, 74, 76, 78-79, 80-81, 112 and calcium retention, 111-112, 114 children, 99, 136 and colon cancer, 90 and chronic disease risk, 89-90, 99 cross-cultural differences, 47-48, 82 disappearance data, 45 experimentally derived, 7, 100-101 food and water sources, 45, 47, 73-74, 80, 81-82, 110, 318, 324 and fracture risk, 84-85, 90 417 gender differences, 44, 81, 82, 105-106, 117, 388-389 human milk, 91-94 and hypertension, 89-90 inadequate, see Calcium deficiency increasing, strategies for, 324 lactation and, 127 lactose intolerance and, 80 by life-stage group, 43, 44, 81-82, 388 389 menopausal status and, 72, 75, 76, 77-81, 112-113, 201 older adults (+70) , 117 plateau, 87, 101, 108, 109-110, 115, 116, 394 pregnancy and, 121-122 quality of data, 100 vegetarian diets and, 80-81 young adults, 75-76, 106-107, 109, 397 Calcium interactions, 59, 68, 152-154, 195 boron and, 38, 39 caffeine, 76 chloride, 61 dietary fiber, 135 estrogen, 76, 77, 88, 113, 115, 126 fluoride, 288, 289, 290, 291 iron, 137, 140, 141, 142 magnesium, 135, 137, 142, 191, 194, 197, 200, 201, 213, 214-215, 225, 229, 239 parathyroid hormone, 72, 73, 75, 82-83, 117, 120, 132 phosphorus, 61, 135, 137, 151, 152-154, 156, 158, 160-161, 174, 176, 178, 180, 181-184, 185-186 protein, 48, 61, 75-76, 135 sodium, 48, 61, 75, 135 vitamin D, 14, 38, 39, 77, 83, 85, 116, 117, 122, 132, 250-253, 254, 255, 258263, 264, 265, 273, 274, 275, 278, 281-282, 285, 286, 287 zinc, 137, 140, 141, 142 Calcium-regulating hormones, 181-184 Calcium retention adolescents, 87, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 117, 118-119, 396 adults, middle age, 109-110, 111-112, 398 AI derivation, 87-89, 93, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 107-108, 394-398 bone mass measurements, 85-86
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See individual sites Cardiovascular diseases, 9, 144 fluoride and, 300, 310 magnesium and, 14, 191, 197-200, 203, 204, 207, 222, 243, 247 vitamin D and, 281 blood pressure, 89 bone fracture in, 73, 90 bone mineral content, 97 calcium, 89, 97 lactose intolerance, 80 magnesium, 195, 199 osteoporosis, 83 phosphorus, 149 vitamin D, 260, 263, 270, 272 Children, ages 4 through 8 years. See also Life-stage groups; Toddlers balance studies, 164, 168, 211-212 blood pressure, 89 bone mass, 85-86, 88 bone mineral accretion, 14, 88, 89, 97-98 calcium, 14, 46, 73, 74, 75, 82, 85-86, 88, 89, 96-99, 136, 141-142, 143, 144 chronic illness, 99 derivation of DRls for, 34, 37 fluoride, 289, 290, 291-292, 293, 294-296, 298-299, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308309, 311-312 growth spurts, 14 indicators used to set AIs, 96-98, 266-267 indicators used to set EARs, 166-168, 210-212 magnesium, 14, 30, 41, 46, 196, 205-206, 210-212, 213, 216, 246, 247-248 phosphorus, 14, 30, 31, 46, 149, 156, 158-159, 164, 166-169, 186, 187 physical exercise, 74 sodium, 75 supplements, 46, 82 vitamin D, 14, 46, 257-258, 259, 260, 262263, 266-268, 284-285 weights and heights, reference, 35-36, 37 Cholecalciferol, 250, 251, 252, 255, 256, 259, 271 Chromium, 66 Chronic disease.
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See also Supplements; specific nutrients adjustment of, 319-323 and bioavailability, 61 breast-fed infants, 93-94 cross-cultural differences, 47-48 disappearance data, 45, 155 fluoride, 291-296, 301, 308-309 food composition databases, 42-43, 262 form of, 62, 63 n.1 gender differences, 387-393 self-reported, 42, 43, 81, 319 sources of data, 43-44 uses of data, 47 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIB) applicable population, 22 assessment applications, 10, 11, 21, 314, 316-317, 319-322 categories; 2-5, 6, 23-27; see also Adequate Intakes; Estimated Average Requirements; Recommended Dietary Allowance; Tolerable Upper Intake Levels country reference values compared, 28 31 criteria for, 9-10, 21-22, 38 defined, 21-22, 37 dietary intakes compared, 43 extrapolation from other age groups, 33 framework, 378-379 generalizability to other populations, 2, 47 group applications, 11, 317, 319-323 individuals applications, 11, 315-317 international application, 2, 10 by national and federal agencies, 323 origin, 375-376 parameters for, 31-37; see also Life-stage groups; Reference weights and heights planning applications, 11, 21, 314, 322 323 rationale for, 376-378 sources of data, 9-10, 39-40; see also Methodological considerations
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See Adults, +70 years Enamel fluorosis, 298-299, 300-302, 305-307. 308-309, 311-313, 318 End-stage renal disease, 151, 184-185, 186 Energy metabolism, 9, 12, 20, 23, 24, 28, 29, 34-35, 190, 205, 212, 316 Environmental exposures to dietary agents, 53, 58 Ergocalciferol, 250, 257, 259 Estimated Average Requirements (EARs)
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See also Formulas, infant Fracture. See Bone fracture Fruits and vegetables, 82, 193, 196, 199-200, 229
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, 27, 149, 150, 160, 175, 184-185, 280, 289 Grain products, 73, 81-82, 152, 161, 173, 193, 195, 256 Growth factors, 191 linear, 263-264, 283 magnesium and, 205-206 phosphorus and, 169-170, 172 velocity, 169-170, 172 vitamin D and, 263-264, 283 H Hazard identification, 69 calcium, 134-137 components of, 62-64, 65 evaluation process, 55, 57, 63-64 fluoride, 306-308 magnesium, 242-244 phosphorus, 180-186 vitamin D, 277-281 Health Canada, 1 INDEX Hormones, calcium-regulating, 181-184 Human milk. See also Breastfeeding; Lactation bioavailability of nutrients, 88 calcium, 15, 91-94 fluoride, 19, 291, 292, 301, 302, 305, 311 magnesium, 17, 208, 240 phosphorus, 16, 148, 149, 152, 153, 155, 160-163, 178, 183 vitamin D, 262, 263, 264, 265-266, 276277 Hydroxyapatite, 71, 147, 151, 153, 200, 288 25-Hydroxyvitamin D AI indicator, 8, 18, 27, 50 and bone mass, 263-264, 273 and granulomatous diseases, 285 half-life, 254 and hypervitaminosis D, 277-278, 285 and hypovitaminosis D, 259-260, 263-277 lactation and, 276-277 and linear growth, 263-264 and magnesium, 192, 197 metabolism, 251, 253 normal range, 286-287 parathyroid hormone and, 259-260 placental transfer, 276 and pregnancy, 275-276 and puberty, 286 Hypercalcemia, 134, 136, 137, 138, 141, 182, 192, 255, 278, 280, 281-283, 284, 285 Hypercalciuria, 120, 135, 138, 140, 141, 255, 318 Hyperlipidemia, 247, 249 Hypermagnesemia, 192, 243-248 Hyperparathyroidism, 84, 136, 193, 258, 270, 273, 274, 278, 280 Hyperphosphatemia, 148, 151, 158, 180-189 Hypertension, 9 calcium intake and, 89-90, 144 magnesium and, 14, 199-200, 207, 234237, 244, 249 preeclampsia, 89-90, 234, 235-238, 244 Hypervitaminosis D, 184-185, 186, 256, 277 287 Height.
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See Nutrient-nutrient interactions International reference values comparison, by country, 28-31 fluoride comparisons, 298-300 generalizability of DRls, 10 423 magnesium, 30, 209, 234-235 phosphorus, 30 Intracellular magnesium, 17, 203-204, 232, 234 Iron, 59, 61, 64, 66, 137, 140, 141, 142, 180 181, 189 J Japanese-American women, 85, 200 Joint FAO/WHP Expert Commission on Food Additives, 56-57 K Kinetic studies, 182-183 L Lactation. See also Breastfeeding; Human milk adolescents, 133-134, 179, 180, 241 balance studies, 17, 240-241 biochemical and absorption studies, 124 125 and bone fracture, 123, 126-127 and bone loss, 122, 132-133 and bone mineral density, 126-132 and bone mineral mass, 15, 123, 126-127 calcium and, 15, 122-134, 142 derivation of DRls for, 35 fluoride and, 19, 305-306 indicators used to set AIs, 123, 126-127, 276-277 indicators used to set EARs, 178, 240-241 magnesium and, 17, 240-242, 247 phosphorus and, 16, 178-180, 188 and serum inorganic phosphate, 178 serum 25(0H)
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From page 424... ...
424 and derivation of DRls, 31-35 fluoride, 19, 301-306 intakes of nutrients by, 44 international comparisons, 28-30 magnesium DRls by, 17, 208-242, 392393 phosphorus, 16, 160-180, 390-391 vitamin D, 18, 263-277 weights and heights, reference, 35-37 Liver failure, 99, 255 Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level calcium, 137-138, 140 defined, 57 identification of, 66 intake data and, 47 fluoride, 308-309, 310-311 magnesium, 244-245 phosphorus, 186-187 and UL derivation, 68 uncertainty factor, 67-68 vitamin D, 281-282, 283-284 Lymphoma, 255, 278 M Magnesium absorption, 192, 193-194, 195, 202, 210, 218, 238, 242-243, 245 accretion, 205-206, 211, 222, 238 adolescents, 194, 195, 206, 210-213, 214 215, 216-219, 240, 244-246, 268 adults, 194, 206, 207, 219-231, 244-246 AIs, 17, 209 and alcoholism, 191, 193, 200, 203, 204, 206, 207 aluminum and, 219, 243, 245 balance studies, 17, 40-41, 193, 204-205, 208-209, 211-212, 214-215, 218, 219 221, 223-227, 228, 229, 231, 234, 240 241, 245, 248 bioavailability, 193, 205, 210, 238 and blood pressure, 199-200 bone mineral content, 38, 200 and bone mineral density, 200, 201 calcium and, 135, 137, 142, 191, 194, 197, 200, 201, 213, 214-215, 225, 229, 239 cardiovascular effects, 14, 191, 197-200, 203, 204, 207, 222, 243, 247 children, 14, 30, 41, 196, 205-206, 210 213, 216, 246, 247-248, 316 INDEX country reference values compared, 30 critical endpoints, 244-245 data selection, 244 deficiency/depletion, 191, 193, 195, 197 203, 204, 206, 234, 235, 239-240 and diabetes mellitus, 14, 191, 200, 201 202, 203, 204, 207, 239-240 and diarrhea, 242, 243, 244-245, 318 dietary fiber and, 192, 193, 199, 219, 221, 223, 224, 226, 229 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 192, 197 distribution and function, 190-191 dose-response relationship, 68, 244-247 EARs, 9, 17, 211, 212, 216-242 energy requirements and, 190, 205, 212, 316 epidemiological studies and meta analysis, 198, 207-208 estimating requirements for, 202-208 estrogen and, 201 excretion, 193, 194, 202, 204, 206-207, 213, 233, 241, 242 exposure assessment, 247-248 factors affecting requirement, 193-195 food and water sources, 45, 193, 196, 198, 199-200, 207 gender differences, 17, 30, 193, 195-196, 199, 214-215, 216-232, 392-393 hazard identification, 242-244 in human milk, 17, 208, 240 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 192, 197 and hypertension, 14, 199-200, 207, 234, 235-237, 244, 249 indicators of nutrient adequacy, 9, 17, 202-209, 210-212, 219-221, 223-226, 228, 231-232, 234-238 In infant formulas, 209-210 infants, 206, 208-210, 234, 235, 236, 243, 246, 247 intakes, 43, 44, 45-46, 48, 193, 195-196, 207, 216, 217-218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 227, 229, 230-231, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 241-242, 248, 392-393 interactions with other nutrients, 191, 192, 193, 194-195, 197, 200, 214-215, 224, 239 international comparisons, 209, 234-235 intracellular, 17, 203-204, 232, 234 lactation and, 17, 20, 240-242, 247 and lean body mass, 17, 211, 217, 238, 316 by life-stage group, 17, 20, 208-242, 392 393
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See also Data and data-base issues; Indicators of nutrient adequacy in balance studies, 40-41, 42, 50, 88, 211 concordance between observational and experimental data, 50, 91 data sources, 39-40 epidemiological evidence, 198 extrapolation from absorbed intake to ingested intake, 173 extrapolation from animal studies, 54, 57, 62-63, 66-67, 69, 383, 384 extrapolation from one gender group to another, 90-91, 104, 109 extrapolation from other age groups, 69, 171, 172, 212, 213, 216, 267-268 factorial approach, 40, 110-111 in intracellular magnesium studies, 232 longitudinal data, 50, 86, 91 in nutrient intake estimates, 42-43, 86 in risk assessment, 54, 383-386 in tolerance tests, 207, 233 Mexican Americans, 82, 260 Milk. See Dairy products; Formulas, infant; Human milk Milk-alkali syndrome, 134, 136-137, 138, 139, 140-141 Myocardial infarction, 198-199, 281
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calcium, 137-138, 140 defined, 57 fluoride, 308-309, 310 identification of, 66 intake data and, 47 magnesium, 244-245 phosphorus, 186-187 and UL derivation, 68 uncertainty factor, 67-68 vitamin D, 281-282, 283-284 Nursing homes, 273, 322-323 Nutrient intakes. See also Dietary intakes; specific nutrients calculation of, 43 gender differences, 43-45 inadequate, prevalence of, 319, 320 increasing, strategies for, 10-12, 28, 323 by life stage group, 43, 44 methodological considerations, 42-43, 86 quality of data, 42-43 from supplements, 45-46 Nutrient-nutrient interactions.
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See also Lactation adolescents, 122, 177, 178, 239, 240, 276 balance studies, 120, 176-177 and bone fracture, 121 and bone mineral density, 120-121, 122 and bone mineral mass, 15, 120-121 and calcium, 12, 15, 20, 72, 89-90, 117, 120-122, 142, 176 derivation of DRIs for, 15, 35
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, 29 Reference weights and heights, 35-37, 212, 216, 302-303, 309, 316 Renal disease/failure/insufficiency, 60, 280 calcium and, 13, 99, 134-137, 142 magnesium and, 191, 193, 201-202, 207, 227, 230, 243, 247 phosphorus and, 151, 184-185, 186, 188 vitamin D, 280 Requirement, defined, 21 Research recommendations balance studies, 144-145 bone mineral accretion, 14, 189 calcium, 13, 144-145 children, 14 dietary intakes, 14 disease outcomes, 13-14 epidemiological, 13 fluoride, 14, 313 food additives, 189 geographical and racial variables, 14 interactions between nutrients, 145, 189
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See also Bone; Osteoporosis fluorosis, 307-308, 310-311, 312 429 magnesium and, 200-201 phosphorus and, 180, 181-182, 185 porosity, 180, 181-182, 185, 258 vitamin D and, 257-258, 260-261, 262264 Skin melanin production, 256, 260, 261, 267 Smoking, 88 Sodium, 48, 61, 75, 138, 144, 190-191, 192, 194 Sodium chloride, 75, 192 Soft drinks, 156, 173-174, 180, 183-184, 291, 293-294 Special considerations adolescent pregnancies, 114, 178, 240 breastfeeding twins, 132-133 calcium, 142-143 closely spaced pregnancies, 127-128 diabetes mellitus, 239-240 elderly people, 255 formula-fed infants, 163, 209-210, 265 fluoride, 305-306, 311 granulomatous diseases, 285 identification of, 64-65 lactating adolescents, 180 magnesium, 195, 210, 239-240, 247 medications, 275 multiple infants/births, 178, 180, 240, 242 phosphorus-related, 163, 178, 180, 188 populations with high energy expenditures, 188 renal impairment, 247 vitamin D and, 255, 265, 275, 285 Sprue, 255 Steroid hormone metabolism, 39 Submariners, 270, 271 Sunlight/sun exposure, and vitamin D, 45, 50, 250, 252, 253-254, 255-256, 260, 262-276, 284, 285, 286 Sunscreen, 256, 261, 271, 286 Supplements, dietary bioavailability of nutrients, 22, 62, 74 calcium, 45-46, 74, 77-80, 82, 86, 89, 9798, 102, 110, 112, 114, 116, 120-121, 123, 126, 130-131, 134, 135, 137, 138, 143, 213, 318, 324 children, 46, 82 data sources on intakes, 45-46 doses, 196, 302 fluoride, 295, 298-299, 302, 304, 311-312
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See also Dose-response assessment; Risk assessment models calcium, 134-143 critical endpoint, 66, 137-138, 140, 244245, 310 data selection, 65-66, 137-138, 244 dose-response assessment, 55, 57, 65-69, 137-143, 244-247, 281-285, 308-311 exposure assessment, 55, 57-58, 143, 188189, 247-248, 285-286, 311-312 fluoride, 306-312 hazard identification, 55, 57, 62-64, 69, 134-137, 180-186, 242-244, 277-281, 306-308 magnesium, 242-248 NOAEL or LOAEL, 47, 66, 69, 137-138, 140, 244-245, 308-309 phosphorus, 180-189 selection of UL, 68, 137-138 uncertainty assessment, 66, 140, 245, 317 vitamin D, 278-286 Uncertainties in AIs, 317 approaches for dealing with, 383-386 assessment, 66, 140, 245, 317 for calcium, 68, 91, 109, 110-111 in data, 54, 58 dose-response assessment, 66-68, 140, 187, 245, 282, 284 for fluoride, 68 inferences from experimental animal studies, 54, 57, 62-63, 66-67 for magnesium, 68, 233, 245 options for dealing with, 383-386 for phosphorus, 68, 155 in risk assessment, 54, 57, 58, 66, 383386 for vitamin D, 68, 281, 282, 284 Uncertainty Factor (UF)
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See also 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D; 25-Hydroxyvitamin D absorption, 253-255 adolescents, 262, 268-269, 276, 277, 284 285, 286 adults, 257, 259, 262, 269-272, 276, 277 AIs, 8, 14, 18, 27, 50, 261-263, 264-265, 266, 267-268, 269, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277 blood and urinary parameters, 279 and bone fracture, 8, 27, 50, 116, 260, 273, 274 and bone mass, 259, 263-264, 271-272, 278 and bone metabolism, 254, 257-258, 284 285 and bone mineral content, 260, 266 and bone mineral density, 14, 260, 261, 264, 271-272, 274 calcium and, 14, 27, 38, 39, 116, 250 253, 254, 255, 258-263, 264, 265, 273, 274, 275, 278, 281-282, 285, 286, 287 and cancer, 258 cardiovascular effects, 281 children, 16, 40-41, 257-258, 259, 260, 262-263, 266-268, 284-285 critical endpoints, 68, 281-282, 283-284 data sources, 43-46, 281, 283 deficiency, 8, 27, 50, 253, 254, 257-258, 259, 263-264, 267, 271 dose-response assessment, 68, 281-285 estimating requirements for, 259-263 excretion, 253-255 exposure assessment, 285-286 factors affecting requirements, 255 431 food sources, 256-257, 261-262, 268, 269, 270, 271, 283, 284, 285-286 function, 250-253 gender differences, 43-45, 256, 257, 269, 271, 272, 274 geographic location and, 14, 259, 264 267, 269-270, 271, 273, 274, 281, 284, 286 and granulomatous diseases, 255, 285 hazard identification, 277-281 in human milk, 263, 262, 264, 265-266, 276-277 and hypercalcemia, 278, 280, 281-283, 284, 285 and hyperparathyroidism, 258, 270, 273, 274, 278, 280 indicators of nutrient adequacy, 18, 27, 50, 259-261, 263-264, 265-267, 268, 269-270, 271-272, 273-274, 275-277 infants, 68, 259, 260, 262-266, 269-270, 275, 277, 283-284 intakes, 14, 27, 43-46, 50, 253, 255, 256, 257, 261-262, 267-268, 275, 285-286, 318 interaction with other nutrients, 192, 193, 197 intoxication, 184-185, 186, 256, 277-287 lactation and, 12, 18, 276-277, 285 life-stage group and, 18, 43-45, 263-277 and linear growth, 263-264, 283 magnesium and, 192, 197 malabsorption disorders, 255 medications and, 275, 278 menopausal status and, 269, 272 and metabolic bone disease, 259 metabolism, 250-255 NOAEL/LOAELs, 281-282, 283-284 older adults, 116, 255, 273-274, 287 and osteomalacia, 8, 50, 258, 269, 274 and osteopenia, 275 and osteoporosis, 14, 27, 274, 280 and parathyroid hormone, 252, 253, 254, 258, 259-260, 262, 264, 266, 269, 272, 274, 287 phosphorus and, 38, 184-185, 186, 250, 253, 254, 258, 260, 265 pregnancy and, 12, 18, 117, 263, 275 276, 285 puberty and, 268, 269, 286 race/ethnicity and, 260, 263, 269-270 receptor polymorphisms, 14
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See Reference weights and heights INDEX Weight-bearing practices, 42, 68 Women. See also Gender differences; Lactation; Menopausal status; Pregnancy amenorrheic, 76 balance studies, 220, 221, 225, 226 calcium, 72, 75, 109-110, 111-114, 135, 143 fluoride, 301-306 indicators used to set AIs, 111-114 indicators used to set EARs, 221, 226 intakes of nutrients, 43-45 magnesium, 30, 220, 222-223, 225, 227, 230-231, 233 phosphorus, 30, 31, 155, 316, 321, 322 323 vitamin D, 43-45, 256, 272, 273 World Health Organization, 22, 52, 83, 319, 322 y Young adults.
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