More Than Screen Deep Toward Every-Citizen Interfaces to the Nation's Information Infrastructure (1997) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
2 Requirements for Effective Every-Citizen Interfaces
2 Requirements for Effective Every-Citizen Interfaces
Pages 21-70
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 21... ...
At the same time, substantial growth in information quantity and diversity is affecting both activities and the nature of the information infrastructure from the inside out, suggesting alternative perspectives for interface designers to consider. The steering committee expected that viewing existing interfaces through the lens of a familiar life domain would reveal neglected issues, unidentified challenges, unexpected convergences, or new directions for research or action.
|
From page 22... ...
More completeness is both beyond the scope of this report and problematic: the ease of extrapolating from what we see and do today may be misleading about the future, although contemporary experiences do illuminate what does and does not work wells In particular, contemporary examples emphasize the characteristics of contemporary personal computers and, to a lesser extent, telephones and televisions; tomorrow's information infrastructure will draw more on embedded systems and different kinds of devices, too (Verity and fudge, 1996~. DIVERSITY OF DEMANDS TO BE MET BY EVERY-CITIZEN INTERFACES The interdisciplinary nature of the workshop discussions provided evidence for the contributions to technical development of better interfaces from better understanding of the social context and "domestication" of system use.
|
From page 23... ...
More recent private surveys (e.g., Hoffman et al., 1996) provide only snapshots, since the combination of broadening use of personal computers and fre quent introductions of new software and services leads to relatively frequent changes in who is doing what.
|
From page 24... ...
, and they are more likely to use on-line and Internet services than households with home computers but no home workers. IDC segments home offices according to whether they are used by selfemployed home workers or by people with "corporate home offices" (i.e., those who work elsewhere and telecommute or bring work home after hours)
|
From page 25... ...
Recent research on Internet use in the United States draws on the 1995 CommerceNet/Nielsen Internet Demographic Survey (CNIDS) , a telephone survey conducted in August 1995 (see Table 2.2~.4 Unlike the 1993 Census Bureau survey, this survey examined Web use, which is a subset of Internet use since one must use the Internet to reach the Web, but not vice versa.
|
From page 26... ...
b Search for product/service 72 56 49 33 information Search for company/organization 72 67 56 45 information Search for other information 86 83 66 66 Browse/explore 95 91 87 82 Make purchase based on Web 29 18 17 8 information Ever used Web for business 57 46 44 30 Total in segment 4.9 million 4.6 million 3.4 million aAll three segments are frequent Internet users (once per week or more often)
|
From page 27... ...
While large income- and education-based differences exist in the access of primary and secondary school students to these media, a 1994 Times Mirror survey of technology in American households found "virtually no socioeconomic differences in how often and for what purposes children use computers if present in the home." Public, civic, and social activities are hardest to represent with robust data (Kraut et al., 1996~. Every study of civic networks has reported that access increases community attachment and political involvement (e.g., Anderson et al., 1995~.
|
From page 28... ...
Making learning a part of life and the implications this has on how, under the influence of new media, human beings will think, create, work, learn, and collaborate in the future constitute a major consideration for the design of every-citizen interfaces to the NII; recognition of these concerns contributes to the rise of programmatic support for lifelong learning in a variety of contexts. The lifelong learning challenge illustrates the need for interfaces and other elements of technology that transcend today's "gift-wrapping" approach to education, training, and learning in which the tradition of rote learning is "wrapped" in the mantle of new technologies such as multimedia or the World Wide Web (Rubin, 1996; Wasser, 1996~.6 See Gerhard Fischer's and Wallace Feurzeig's position papers in this volume for a fuller discussion.
|
From page 29... ...
It is possible, as Mark Weiser, of Xerox, mused at the workshop, to begin to talk about personal information infrastructureswhich are elements of or complements to the larger NII. The personal and social impacts are changing with the technologies and their uses.
|
From page 30... ...
Another clear difference between home and institutional settings (work, school, and public access points such as libraries) is that equipment and networks at home are paid for by individual users.
|
From page 31... ...
This premium on usability in home settings is one reason the term appliance has been used with greater frequency to describe an easeof-use objective for future access devices. The problem of meeting user support needs is compounded, of course, in the case of people with inferior devices or systems (e.g., for reasons of affordability)
|
From page 32... ...
Virtual reality applications will employ spatial representations of real spatial phenomena, but they will also employ spatial representations of nonspatial phenomena, simply because our brains are hardwired for solving problems in three-dimensional space." Drawing from her experiences working with humanities scholars, Susan Hockey (then with the Center for Electronic Texts in the Humanities) described, at the workshop, how documents can be viewed as complex data structures; digital annotations and hypertext representations of textual documents can include nonlinear links and can show layers of
|
From page 33... ...
It is important to recognize that there are choices and that, by shaping the presentation of information, interface design may affect use. Most obviously, for example, for those with sensory disabilities, information that is presented in only one modality may not be accessible.
|
From page 35... ...
. In public access systems, other constraints may be embodied in system design.
|
From page 36... ...
Different environments will put constraints on what type of physical and sensory input techniques will work under what circumstances and conditions (e.g., it is difficult to use a keyboard when walking, difficult and dangerous to use an input method that requires vision when driving a car; keyboard use is fine when sitting at a desk, but speech input may not be acceptable in a shared environment) , as well as the types of display or other output techniques that will be accessible and usable or not (in a noisy mall, in the midst of a meeting, while at the library, while driving a car)
|
From page 37... ...
Expectations for greater use of public access systems, evidenced by experimentation with a variety of kiosk applications, suggests a need to assess their performance and technical requirements more systematically; insights might be gained from contemporary phone booths, automated teller machines, and kiosk systems (GITS, 1995; Venture Development Corporation, 1996a-c) .~3 Range of Users People who have disabilities or who are older represent a particularly important target community for ECIs, because for people who lack such abilities as walking, seeing, speaking, or hearing, the NII is a medium of communication that allows participation in the nation's civic, social, and economic life on an even footing with fully abled people (see Box 2.3~.
|
From page 38... ...
The Census Bureau regularly measures the number and characteristics of people with specific disabilities.~4 Some 49 million Americans (about 1 in 5) have a disability, defined as a limitation on performing one or more of a range of functional and social activities, such as seeing words in newsprint, engaging in spoken conversation, climbing stairs, shopping, or performing light housework.
|
From page 39... ...
Bureau of the Census, 1994~. As Sara Czaja notes in her position paper (available online at http://www2.nas.edu/CSTBWEB)
|
From page 40... ...
It is vital to understand that the recognition that people have a range of abilities and styles does not mean that system capabilities valued by advanced users should be eliminated. It would be undesirable to do so; advanced users hold special interest for interface designers because, as in other aspects of information technology, these are the people who push the technology and promote innovation, a good part of which later enters mainstream use.
|
From page 41... ...
As Larry Goldberg observes in his position paper in this volume, PCs can run specialized text-to-speech synthesizers and thus make applications accessible to blind or illiterate users. Goldberg expressed concern that low-cost "information appliances" with less general-purpose capability than PCs could preclude add-one such as speech synthesis and large-print displays.
|
From page 42... ...
The challenge relates not only to conventional communications and information devices, such as personal computers and various kinds of telephones, but also other systems, some embedded in very different kinds of equipment, to which the conventional devices may be interconnected or which may supplant those devices for at least some purposes. New types of input, including passive input, gestures, and increased use of speech and natural language, will not replace existing input techniques but rather complement them, providing the user with a wealth of alternate input strategies to select from depending on the task, environment, and personal abilities or preferences.
|
From page 43... ...
Control Strategies The strategies used to control a system are similar to the input techniques. These include: · Verbal techniques (keyboard, speech recognition, alternate keyboards, sign language recognition)
|
From page 44... ...
. Making medium-specific information accessible generally involves creating an information package that includes both the original format (picture, movie, etc.)
|
From page 45... ...
At the same time, consideration of communication-related disabilities is helpful in understanding how, when, where, and why people's needs differ: speech synthesis can help the visually impaired people, whereas visualization can help hearing-impaired people, and so on. Characteristics Desired for Effective Interfaces In exploring possible directions for developing more effective interfaces, workshop participants identified the following characteristics, each of which is discussed in more detail below along with approaches for achieving these goals.
|
From page 46... ...
Layering can be used to create interfaces that are easier to understand yet still allow for the full functionality that may be desired by power users. Layering basically involves the covering up of more advanced features to present a less complex initial interface to the individual.
|
From page 47... ...
. As frequent complaints about VCRs and microwave ovens illustrate, some appliances can be both big sellers and a source of frustration to buyers presumably because virtually everyone can learn how to do at least the basic functions with them.
|
From page 48... ...
Some strategies discussed above, such as cueing and the passive/ active strategy, can help an individual learn about the capabilities of a system on the fly as it is being used. Especially with layered systems, such cueing and built-in assistance can allow individuals to naturally evolve an understanding of the additional functions of a device in a more natural manner as they are using the more basic functions of the device.
|
From page 49... ...
. That approach would require development of an interface with no visual display, no auditory output, no speech input, and no manual controls and that could be used while the individual is distracted or unable to think or concentrate well.
|
From page 50... ...
Because an individual will probably need to access information appliances and tools in a wide variety of environments even in a single day, it will be important that modality independence be built into the base product and that it be easy, seamless, and natural to move between modes. As discussed above, it is important that these interfaces accommodate the full range of users, from novice through expert power users.
|
From page 51... ...
The flexibility provided needs to allow for the user to select interfaces that best match the particular task. In the attempt to make all services available to all people, it is also important to allow individuals with more advanced skills and full use of all their senses the opportunity to use whatever interface is most effective for them and the task.
|
From page 52... ...
Again, it is interesting to note that in looking at collaborative systems, we will be looking at trying to collaborate with a computer a system that has distinctly impaired vision, hearing, and cognitive abilities. The research aimed at developing interface strategies that work for people with physical and sensory limitations should provide interesting insights for those working on intelligent collaborative machines (and vice versa)
|
From page 53... ...
There are many technical, economic, regulatory, and business factors interacting in the environment within which interface design decisions must be made. Comments at the workshop and on the review draft of this report underscore the wide range of appreciation for the larger environment and for the interactions that shape demand and supply for the technologies for which interfaces are needed.
|
From page 54... ...
What does it take to achieve flexible data structures/presentations that serve different populations without duplicating content? This kind of exploration of the bows and whys of public-interest applications raises questions about the tradeoffs between multiple interface options and equity attained by efforts to provide the same interface for all users that are outside the scope of this report but that, to the extent they are addressed by political processes, will affect the environment in which interface design decisions are made.
|
From page 55... ...
However, integration of key features or functions across platforms and services is an issue in the marketplace; it constrains the commercial support for interface commonalities. "Plug and play" is an urgent necessity for what a user perceives as a hopelessly complex environment of multiple service providers and facilities.
|
From page 56... ...
Some observers of the evolution of electronic commerce believe that a widely accepted end-to-end paradigm for secure transactions will be in place within 2 years, encouraging expanded commercial use of Web browsers. This suggests the value of further research on user interfaces for commercial transactions, including handshaking palm-top devices, communicating pocketbooks and wallets, and other innovative interfaces.
|
From page 57... ...
What differences are introduced by the NII media in these activities? How can NII interface design boost positive effects or damp negative ones?
|
From page 58... ...
as specialized, the extension of information infrastructure to more citizens is driving an expansion of security to the broader concept of trustworthiness, linking it to complementary considerations for privacy, safety, and reliability. Protections are needed against both inadvertence and malice in a world of what Mark Weiser has called ubiquitous computing, where personal information infrastructures relate to more general information infrastructure, and where dependence on information infrastructure implies systems to assure trustworthiness of people and systems with which one communicates.
|
From page 59... ...
Information Centered The growing pervasiveness of information suggests that interface designers consider a perspective that is information centered, rather than or in addition to one that is application or tool centered. At the workshop, Tohanna Moore, of the University of Pittsburgh, described this replacement as a change in the "basic currency" of the NII from applications to information.
|
From page 60... ...
Can it be trusted? Is it easily accessible or remote and untouchable?
|
From page 61... ...
REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE EVERY-CITIZEN INTERFACES 6 questions go well beyond requirements for interfaces, but interfaces can support the user seeking to answer such questions. The central concern is dealing with large volumes of information of varying and uncertain quality, recognizing that "quality" can be both subjective and dependent on context.20 Research to support better finding and use of information will be complicated by the absence of standard ways to convey the quality of information to people and the dependence of quality on the context of publication or use, suggesting value in a flexible way of representing quality grounded in a sound sociological understanding of how people use information so that people can differentiate the quality of informa
|
From page 62... ...
, antitrust legal inquiries relating to screen displays in computerized reservation systems provided by airlines to travel agents, and recent public statements of information service providers and consumer advocates about screen displays associated with Web browsers and other Internetrelated services. Public policy may impose requirements on interface design; technologists should become prepared by recognizing the issue and considering the technical options for representation, display, finding, filtering, and so on.
|
From page 63... ...
involves decisions about the intellectual content of the object. One approach that may affect interface design is to more consistently add metadata to information that could help people or machines acting on their behalf to interpret and integrate information.
|
From page 64... ...
Telepresence, in the form of casual video conferencing and collaboration, is the subject of much speculation about how technology can eliminate barriers to intimacy. Although many technologists and business analysts tout video teleconferencing as a possible "killer app" for the NII, Robert Kraut and Sara Kiesler noted that research over 25 years suggests limited payoff to it conversations accompanied by video are not clearer, information exchange is not better but some do like it better than simple
|
From page 65... ...
More optimistic technologists hold out the promise that within a year or two some people will be able to glance into the offices home- or businessbased of perhaps 60 people with whom they normally interact, in contrast to most video conferencing used for remote meetings with many people in attendance. With the advent of wideband digital networks, ease of use, and better quality, the telecommunications center is moving into personal computers or workstations.
|
From page 66... ...
Individuals who have difficulty learning the new systems or newfunctions on the systems find that there are built-in agents that will help them through whatever task they are interested in and that will interact with them in afriendly, natural language format (or that can interact with the user's own personal agents)
|
From page 67... ...
Sighted individuals also take advantage of this feature in order to allow them to continue monitoring the situation or demonstration with their eyes while the textual information is beingfed to them aurally. Even an individual who is deaf or blind can have the information translated and presented on a special dynamic Braille and tactile display that can be attached to the system.
|
From page 68... ...
2. An interagency assessment of issues and opportunities for kiosks in government applications proposed a staged pilot and market test program that would support data gathering and incorporation of feedback into future design and deployment steps (see Government Information Technology Service (GITS)
|
From page 69... ...
The retail sector accounts for 84 percent of kiosks installed in 1995, but Venture Development Corporation (VDC, 1996c) expects faster growth in financial, government, and corporate use.
|
From page 70... ...
20. At the workshop, Robert Kraut, of Carnegie Mellon University, noted that because information is not a passive, inactive thing, it can have different values for consumers and producers.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.