U.S.-European Collaboration in Space Science (1998) / Chapter Skim
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3 Case Studies of U.S-European Missions
3 Case Studies of U.S-European Missions
Pages 42-100
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From page 42... ...
Because the disciplinary base may highlight different components of the issue of international cooperation, this chapter accounts for the particulars of each discipline Earth science, space science with its subdisciplines (astrophysics, space physics, and planetary science) , and microgravity research and life sciences by examining a few selected missions from each area.
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From page 43... ...
, ISEE SOHO, INTEGRAL, Cassini-Huygens, EOS Polar platforms IML-1, 2 AMPTE TOPEX-POSEIDON UARS AMPTE, ROSAT, TOPEX-POSEIDON NOTE to Tables 3.1 and 3.2: AMPTE = Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer; EOS = Earth Observing System; ESA = European Space Agency; GMM = Generic Mars Mission; HST = Hubble Space Telescope; IML = International Microgravity Laboratory; INTEGRAL = International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory; ISEE = International Sun-Earth Explorer; ISPM = International Solar Polar Mission [renamed Ulysses] ; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration; ROSAT = Roentgen Satellite; SOHO = Solar and Heliospheric Observatory; TOPEX = (Ocean)
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From page 44... ...
and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) .2 The optics reflect 1 The original WFPC was replaced in the 1993 servicing mission by WFPC2, which is similar but includes a revised set of filters that have c c7 ., been improved for the far UV, a new type of charge-coupled device, and corrective optics for the spherical aberration in the primary mirror.
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. As a result of discovering a manufacturing flaw in the primary mirror on the observatory, NASA conducted a servicing mission in December 1993 and installed the corrective optics package, Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR)
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This would allow ESA to secure a significant share of the observing time for European astronomers during the then planned 10 years of operations. It was proposed that ESA help to staff the Science Operations Facility, later renamed the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI)
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From page 47... ...
11 Bahcall, J.N., and Odell, C.R., "Scientific Research with the Space Telescope," SEE N80-22130 12-88, 1979, p. 5; Laurence, R.J., "The History of the Hubble Space Telescope and ESA's Involvement," ESA Bulletin 61:9-12, 1990; Smith, R.W., The Space Telescope: A Study of NASA, Science, Technology, and Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1989; Wilson, A., ea., Interavia Space Directory, International Space Programmes, 1994, p.
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From page 48... ...
In December 1987 it was decided that ROSAT would be launched on an expendable launch vehicle (Delta II) in 1990 instead of on the Space Shuttle.
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15 In addition to Leicester, the other institutions in the United Kingdom that had a major role were the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Mullard Space Science Laboratory of University College London, the University of Birmingham, and the Imperial College of Science and Technology London.
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To select between competing proposals, the IUC uses the priority and observing time allocated by national selection committees. The IUC recommends a final ROSAT observing program to BMFT and reports back to the national committees about any changes to individual national observing programs.
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The solar-wind in situ instruments measure the composition of the solar wind and energetic particles. NASA supplied the SOHO launch vehicle (an Atlas-2AS)
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It was guided and finally produced by a survey committee composed of senior European space scientists, including the ESA Space Science Advisory Committee (SSAC)
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of the Horizon 2000 long-term plan for space science. INTEGRAL, now planned for launch in 2001, is a high-energy observatory for fine spectroscopy and imaging in the energy range between 15 keV and 10 MeV.
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This team, together with ESA and NASA engineers, carried out a joint ESA-NASA assessment study that identified two options for an ESA-NASA cooperative mission, one in which ESA would provide the spacecraft and NASA the launch vehicle (Titan-class would be required) , and the other in which NASA would provide the spacecraft and ESA an Ariane launch.
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A suspicion arose within the U.S. space science community that funding the spectrometer would require that funds be derived from the Explorer line.
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, European Space Agency, Paris, 1997, p. 587; Matteson, J.L., Dean, A.J., and Winkler, C., "Proceedings of the 2nd Compton GammaRay Observatory Symposium," AIP 294:89, 1994; Winkler, C., ea., "Report on INTEGRAL Phase A Study," ESA SCI 93:1, 1993; Winkler, C., "INTEGRAL: Overview and Mission Concept," ApJSS 92:327, 1994; Winkler, C., "Proceedings of the 4th Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory Symposium" (in press)
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From page 57... ...
27 ESA also participated in the Science Operations Facility at the Space Telescope Science Institute in the United States and set up its own Space Telescope-European Coordinating Facility (in Garching, Germany) , which further clarified mission responsibilities.
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From page 58... ...
INTEGRAL, SOHO, and HST, for example, show that ESA-NASA cooperation can be highly successful and lead to top-level research. Long-Term Commitment The Memorandum of Understanding The HST project was originally planned as a 15-year mission with an MOU that guaranteed ESA 15 percent observing time in exchange for supplying the FOC instrument, solar panels, and ESA staff at the STScI.
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From page 59... ...
For the purposes of this report, two missions have been selected that are representative of international cooperation in planetary science in the fullest sense: (1) the Cassini mission with the Huygen probe, which is an ongoing joint project of NASA, ESA, and Agenda Spaziale Italiana (ASI, the Italian Space Agency)
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From page 60... ...
. Historical Background The historical origins of the Cassini mission can be traced back to the Space Science Board (SSB)
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The Mariner Mark II spacecraft was never built, but the concept was attractive enough to encourage abandoning the spare Galileo spacecraft approach and, when coupled with subsequent funding problems, to delay a new start for the Cassini mission until the end of the decade. However, the Cassini project incorporated a significant heritage from developmental work on the Mariner Mark II spacecraft (which yielded reduced costs to the mission)
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34 All budget figures for the Cassini mission have been kindly supplied by Ronald Draper, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, deputy project manager of the Cassini mission.
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NASA also established a project office at JPL headed by the Cassini mission project manager36 with overall responsibility for mission management and implementation. ESA established a Huygens project office at the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC)
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From page 64... ...
From a European point of view, Cassini gives the European planetary community an outstanding opportunity to be deeply involved in one of the major missions of solar system exploration. The Cassini mission enjoys broad-based scientific support because its objectives cover most of the important scientific issues concerning the Saturnian system and thus involves the entire planetary science community.
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From page 65... ...
At about the same time, NASA undertook a study of a similar mission called Mars Geoscience Climatology Orbiter and later known as Mars Observer. In 1985, a decision was made to link Mars Observer and Kepler to produce the first attempt at an international Mars mission, the so-called Mars Dual Orbiter.39 In 1993 a new ESA Phase A study was completed on a more ambitious joint mission with NASA, called Marsnet, to place surface stations on the red planet.
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From page 66... ...
These were the NASA Mars Geoscience and Climatology Orbiter, later named Mars Observer, and the ESA Kepler Mars Aeronomy Orbiter mission. The study team argued that by flying both of these missions in close coordination and simultaneously around Mars for a significant period, enhancements of the overall science return would be achieved.
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From page 67... ...
In October 1982, the JWG on Planetary Exploration of NAS-NRC and ESF formed the TPSG, which recommended the development of a Mars Dual Orbiter mission. Four months later, JWG formed OPST, which endorsed the Cassini mission as the priority for the next major planetary probe.
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From page 68... ...
Kepler's direct competition with Cassini involved the same scientific community, and lack of synchronization with the Mars Observer timeline led to the failed cooperative effort. The Cassini mission in its sink-or-swim-together mode generated strong "lobbying and support" efforts on both sides of the Atlantic.
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From page 69... ...
SPACE PHYSICS Investigations in space physics whether experimental or theoretical are largely devoted to specific phenomena in space such as the physics of acceleration of charged particles, entrainment of magnetic fields by the solar wind, shocks of various types traveling in the interplanetary medium, radiation trapped in planetary magnetospheres, and elemental and isotopic composition of energetic particles from the galaxy that can be investigated .
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From page 70... ...
Space physics on both sides of the Atlantic has benefited greatly from this cooperation, with subsequent projects such as the Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer (AMPTE) and the ISTP as positive examples of such cooperation.
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From page 71... ...
It reached 80.2° south latitude in 1994, passed perihelion in March 1995, and reached 80.2° north latitude in mid-1995 under conditions approaching the solar minimum of the approximately 11-year solar cycle. The many diverse scientific investigations on Ulysses were hugely successful, and the resulting discoveries in many fields of space physics drastically changed many concepts that had been based on extrapolations from the two-dimensional world.
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From page 72... ...
When the revised budget was released, OMB called for overall budget reductions within each NASA budget category for FY 1982, which resulted in $107 million less for the Office of Space Science and Applications (oSSA) .46 NASA chose to absorb a good portion of these cuts by eliminating the $43 million originally slated for ISPM in FY 1982.
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From page 73... ...
All contained extensive instrumentation supported by a diverse team of investigators, with the CCE and IRM providing the only complete data set existent on energetic ion spectra, composition, and charge state throughout the near-Earth magnetosphere. In addition, the IRM carried out eight major active ion releases two clouds of lithium ions in the solar wind in front of the magnetosphere; two barium "artificial comet" releases in the dawn and dusk; and two releases each of lithium and barium ions in the near magnetotail.
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Complementary to the magnetospheric particle tracing was the second objective, the diagnostics of the interaction between the natural plasma environment (solar wind, plasma sheet) and the dense, heavy ion population of the release gas clouds, by both in situ and remote (ground-based)
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From page 75... ...
Although initially conceived as a highly focused and modest space physics mission, like the successful ISEE mission, the CCE and IRM spacecraft proved to be important tools in the exploration and long-term monitoring of interaction processes between the solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere and atmosphere, and the resulting changes of particle populations and field configurations. The scientific success of the AMPTE mission was due, in part, to the science data system, which originally allowed on-line access to all of the data by all coinvestigators and guest investigators.
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From page 76... ...
The IMS helped stabilize the mission, which was finally named ISEE. On ESRO's side, the ISEE mission was selected jointly with the x-ray mission HELOS, which was to be renamed European Space Agency's X-Ray Observatory (EXOSAT)
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From page 77... ...
This is particularly true in NASA-European national space agency cooperation as opposed to NASA-ESA cooperation. As a consequence, it is no surprise that the problems that arose rarely originated from the group of individual scientists but from the agencies instead.
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From page 78... ...
The two European spacecraft were represented by a German project coordinator whose attention was focused on smooth interfaces across the Atlantic and on internal milestones and cash flow. On ISEE, excellent personal relations between the two project managers amplified the value of clean boundaries and minimized difficulties when they occurred.
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Budget Process: The "Bad " News Cancellation of an international cooperative space mission is more likely in the United States than Europe. The ISPM experience highlights this possibility.
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than in the case of ISPM. EARTH SCIENCES There is a broad, multidimensional context that influences Earth observation missions and the characteristics and dynamics of international cooperation.
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. Overall, however, Earth observation for Earth sciences remains an emerging process.
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~. The international scientific community has therefore been involved from the beginning in setting the goals of space missions in Earth observation.
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Similarly, stratospheric scientists could benefit from instruments being prepared for launch on Pioneer Venus to study its stratosphere, which provided an excellent heritage of scientific knowledge. NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA)
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From page 84... ...
In addition, before papers were sent out for publication, they were refereed and reviewed by the entire science team. As a result, the very first set of papers published on the results of UARS still remain standard references in stratospheric science.60 Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX-POSEIDON)
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From page 85... ...
64 Interview with Charles Yamarone, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, TOPEX-POSEIDON project manager at Pasadena, Calif., March 18, 1996; interview with Chester Koblinsky, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Beltsville, Md., head, Oceans and Ice Branch, March 20, 1996. 65 See footnote 64.
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From page 86... ...
Another important element in this cooperative effort was the level of cost sharing. CNES agreed to cover about 30 percent of the total cost of the project, including the launch, a 13.6-GHz altimeter (in addition to NASA's dual-frequency instrument operating at 13.6 and 5.3 GHz)
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This was an infrastructure-dnven, all-embracing approach that assumed big, serviceable polar platforms for scientific and operational purposes. NASA's Earth science program took advantage of the polar orbiting platform for its design of a global Earth observation system.
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, A Strategy for Earth Science from Space in the 1980s-Part I: Solid Earth and Oceans, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1982; Committee on Earth Sciences, Space Science Board, NRC, A Strategy for Earth Science from Space in the 1980s and 1990s-Part II: Atmosphere and Interactions with the Solid Earth, Oceans, and Biota, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1985; Task Group on Earth Sciences, Space Science Board, NRC, 1988, Space Science in the Twenty-First Century (7 vols.) , National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1988; Committee on Earth Sciences, Space Studies Board, NRC, Strategy for Earth Explorers in Global Earth Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1989; Space Studies Board, NRC, Space Studies Board Position on the NASA Earth Observation System, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991; and Committee on Earth Studies, Space Studies Board, NRC, Assessment of Satellite Earth Observation Programs, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991.
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From page 89... ...
:505, 510, 516, 1991; EOS Payload Advisory Panel, Adapting the Earth Observing System to the Projected $8 Billion Budget: Recommendations from the EOS Investigators, Berrien Moore III and Jeff Dozier, eds., NASA, Washington, D.C., 1992; Frieman, E., ea., Report of Earth Observing System Engineering Review Committee, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1991. 77 EEOP-European Space Science Committee, European Science Foundation, A Strategy for Earth Observation from Space, ESF, Strasbourg, France, September 1992.
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From page 90... ...
Many in the Earth sciences community hope that the cooperation can be continued, at least through an appropriate data policy that allows for data exchange and sharing of scientific research. Cooperation Cooperation on the polar platforms took mainly a top-down approach, initiated by the agencies.
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From page 91... ...
difficulties preserving their respective programs, and had to descope them. In the end, the cooperative effort failed because the polar platform program was not objective driven and because the larger Space Station program from which it had emerged attempted to impose rules on Earth observations that had nothing to do with the International Space Station.
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From page 92... ...
. Furthermore, within the Earth sciences, there has not been a cooperative land science mission between either NASA and ESA or NASA and a European country.~° The only cooperation in this domain has been restricted to data exchange, calibration and validation, sharing of receiving stations, or the opportunity to place European instruments on board the Space Shuttle.
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From page 93... ...
In the case of WARS, this pioneering concept in an Earth science mission helped investigators to compare their measurements with other related parameters in the stratosphere measured by other instruments on UARS and thereby provided excellent diagnostic capability to each of the investigators. In addition, when a central data handling facility is set up from which each participating scientist, regardless of nationality, can reach into and acquire the data of everyone else, common trust is built up faster and the scientific results are likely to be of higher quality.
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TOPEX-POSEIDON data are processed, distributed, and archived by JPL's Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PODAAC) and by the French Space Agency (CNES)
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From page 95... ...
between NASA and ESA is relatively recent, and the undercurrent of competitive forces still influences Earth observation programs at these agencies. The lack of adequate data exchange agreements between NASA and ESA for their major Earth science missions (e.g., EOS, ENVISAT)
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Thirteen separate experiments were performed in the microgravity research facilities. The areas targeted were casting and solidification technology, solution crystal growth, vapor crystal growth, protein crystal growth, organic crystal growth, and critical point phenomena.
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NASA did not provide any of the microgravity research facilities, but at least one U.S. PI was included in every facility.
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The United States had the only vehicle capable of carrying these experiments into space but relatively limited amounts of equipment or budget to produce such equipment. The Europeans, on the other hand, had no access to space on their own because they had no launch vehicle, but they had both the funding and the interest to provide equipment suitable for these experiments in microgravity research and life sciences.
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From page 99... ...
For IML-1 and IML-2, there is no single source summary of scientific results. One has to comb through a considerable number of sources 82 For more information about archiving, see Committee on Microgravity Research, Space Studies Board, NRC, Archiving Microgravity Flight Data and Samples, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996.
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From page 100... ...
However, the format of such a publication should be such that the material would not preclude paral 76%>> lication in refereed journals.83 An example to be followed is that of the D-2 mission, which published a single volume containing information and basic findings from every experiment on the m~ssion.84 Communication Considenng the potential for difficulties in managing these complex international missions, the management succeeded better than anyone could have expected. Some problems arose, and there were too many levels of management between the PI and the mission, but few concrete suggestions were made about ways to improve mission management.
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