Funding a Revolution Government Support for Computing Research (1999) / Chapter Skim
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9 Development in Artificial Intelligence
9 Development in Artificial Intelligence
Pages 198-225
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Those in the latter category often do not necessarily consider themselves AI researchers, but rather fall into a broader category of researchers interested in machine intelligence. The concept of AI originated in the private sector, but the growth of 198
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. Shannon's work inspired a young mathematician, John McCarthy, who, while a research instructor in mathematics at Princeton University, joined Shannon in 1952 in organizing a conference on automata studies, largely to promote symbolic modeling and work on the theory of machine intelligence.3 A year later, Shannon arranged for McCarthy and another
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After the workshop IBM welcomed McCarthy to its research laboratories, in large part because of IBM's previous work in AI and because "IBM looked like a good bet to pursue artificial intelligence research vigorously" in the future.7 Rochester was a visiting professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during 1958-1959, and he unques
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Thus, the activities surrounding the Dartmouth workshop were, at the outset, linked with the cutting-edge research at a leading private research laboratory (AT&T Bell Laboratories) and a rapidly emerging industrial giant (IBM)
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202 FUNDING A REVOLUTION Principia of Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead (Newell and Simon, 1956~.~2 This program is regarded by many as the first successful AI program, and the language it used, IPL2, is recognized as the first significant listprocessing language. As programmed by Simon, Newell, and Shaw, a computer simulated human intelligence, solving a problem in logic in
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, but, most significantly, it solved these problems by simulating the way a human being would solve them. These overall research efforts at GSIA, including the doctoral research of Simon's students all funded principally by Air Force and ONR money remained modest in scale compared to those at Carnegie Tech after 1962.~4 Also modest were the efforts at MIT, where McCarthy and Minsky established the Artificial Intelligence Project in September 1957.
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The early academic centers were MIT and Carnegie Tech. Following John McCarthy's move to Stanford in 1963 to create the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL)
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, who "supported work in problem solving, natural language processing, pattern recognition, heuristic programming, automatic theorem proving, graphics, and intelligent automata. Various problems relating to human-machine communication tablets, graphic systems, hand-eye coordinationwere all pursued with IPTO support" (Norberg and O'Neill, 1996~.
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Industry supported work in speech recognition at least as far back as the 1950s, when researchers at Bell Laboratories worked on systems for recognizing individual spoken digits "zero" through "nine." Research in the area was boosted tremendously by DARPA in the 1970s. DARPA established the Speech Understanding Research (SUR)
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pioneered the use of techniques borrowed from mathematics and statistics (hidden Markov models) to recognize continuous speech (Baker, 1975~.
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SHIFT TO APPLIED RESEARCH INCREASES INVESTMENT Although most founders of the AI field continued to pursue basic questions of human and machine intelligence, some of their students and other second-generation researchers began to seek ways to use AI meth
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2jo [~C ~ DEN oafs and approaches to tackle real-~orld problems Weir 1n1hatives Were important not only in Den own right but also because Hey Were 1ndicaOve of a gradual but Scant change in Be Ending environment to~ard more applied realms of research. We development of expert sys~ms' such as DENDRAL at SAIL' provides but one example of this bend (see Box 9.3~.
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External developments reinforced this shift. The most important was the passage of the Mansfield Amendment in 1969.24 Passed during the Vietnam War amid growing public concern about the "military-industrial complex" and the domination of U.S.
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The four main goals of the SCP were as follows: 1. Advance machine intelligence technology and high-performance computing, including speech recognition and understanding, natural-language computer interfaces, vision comprehension systems, and advanced expert systems development, and to do so by providing significant increases in computer performance, through parallel-computer architectures, software, and supporting microelectronics; 2.
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Provide the supporting research infrastructure for AI research through advanced networking, new microcircuit fabrication facilities, advanced emulation facilities, and advanced symbolic processors (Kahn, 1988~. To achieve these goals, DARPA established three specific applications as R&D objectives: a pilot's associate for the Air Force, an autonomous land vehicle for the Army, and an aircraft battle management system for the Navy.
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. TABLE 9.2 Federal Funding for Basic Research in Artificial Intelligence by Agency (in millions of dollars)
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE l990s Despite the commercial difficulties associated with the Strategic Computing Program, the AI-driven advances in rule-based reasoning systems (i.e., expert systems) and their successors many of which were initiated with DARPA funding in the 1960s and 1970s proved to be extremely valuable for the emerging national information infrastructure and electronic commerce.
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Patent Bibliographic Database, available online at |
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Matsushita Texas Instruments 297 192 114 94 92 91 73 67 60 59 58 57 53 53 48 44 44 42 42 42 NOTE: The patents included artificial intelligence, expert systems, neural networks, intelligent systems, adaptive agents, and adaptive systems.
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Technologies such as expert systems, natural-language processing, and computer vision are now used in a range of applications, such as decision aids, planning tools, speech-recognition systems, pattern recognition, knowledge representation, and computer-controlled robots.30
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universities. 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 O Artificial Intelligence Expert Systems Neural Networks ~ Intelligent Systems -- - Adaptive Systems Adaptive Agents _~ .
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dissertations submitted annually in AI and related fields and in computer science, 1956-1995. SOURCE: Data from Dissertation Abstracts Online, which is available through subscription to the OCLC Firstsearch database from UMI Company.
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There is a creative tension between fundamental research and attempts to create functional devices. Original attempts to design intelligent, thinking machines motivated fundamental work that created a base of knowledge.
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6. Dated August 31, 1955, "A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence" was actually submitted, along with a cover letter to Morison, on September 2, 1955, according to the Rockefeller Foundation Archives grant files.
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. Other firms that not only pursued speech recognition research but also entered commercial markets with related products included Verbex Voice Systems and Texas Instruments.
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32. A report by the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (1994)
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