Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Problem-Solving Concepts and Case Studies (1986) / Chapter Skim
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10. A Scientific Framework for Environmental Problem-Solving
10. A Scientific Framework for Environmental Problem-Solving
Pages 104-115
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From page 104... ...
Despite their bewildering variety, environmental problems share some basic features, including actions that result in environmental changes, public and scientific concern about those changes, a need for methods for predicting environmental responses to human actions, and limited resources for the acquisition and analysis of relevant ecological information. We draw heavily on a number of recent efforts to make environmental assessment and management scientifically more credible (Andrews et al.
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From page 105... ...
Guidelines too elaborate and requirements too diverse Time and money constraints not recognized Unreasonable expectations of decision-makers Tendency to start gathering baseline data immediately, at the expense of careful planning Failure to formulate objectives clearly and to develop a study strategy Unwarranted belief that ecological principles used in managed systems are as appropriate to unmanaged systems Failure to recognize the value of early input from those who might later be involved in re view, leading to an adversarial process Failure to define project boundaries Failure to consider cumulative effects Failure to state the bases of value judgments Lack of scientific standards for impact assessment Lack of respect in academe for impact assessment Vague and unverifiable predictions Lack of a rigorous, quantitative approach, especially in monitoring Lack of continuity in studies conducted during planning, developmental, and operational phases of a project Failure to follow actions with adequate monitoring studies Use of impact assessment for disclosure, rather than for learning Failure to recognize the scientific value of experimentation and monitoring Failure to consider the recovery potential of species and ecosystems Poorly written reports in which major points are buried in enormous amounts of information Inordinate expenditure of effort on descriptive studies with little potential for predictive value Inaccessibility of reports and results of studies, making them difficult to evaluate and learn from DEFINING ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS AND SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS In spite of the difficulties and controversies associated with identifying environmental goals, a clear statement of goals early on can help to focus research and can increase the chance of protecting components of the environment likely to be identified as valuable to society. The first step in defining such goals is to identify the components of the environment perceived as valuable, such as salmon in rivers of the northwestern and northeastern United States, a "natural-looking" community of plants on reclaimed land (Chapter 18)
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From page 106... ...
The National Environmental Policy Act requires early public and professional input in identifying those issues (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978~. The goal of protecting the Southern Indian Lake whitefish fishery was economically motivated (Chapter 211.
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From page 107... ...
Clear air and water . Economic concerns Species or habitats of recreational or commercial interest Ecosystem components Environmental values and concerns Ecosystem rarity or uniqueness Sensitivity of species or ecosystems to stress Ecosystem " naturalness " Genetic resources Ecosystem services Recovery potential of ecosystems "Keystone" species than more conservative management would (e.g., Murphy, 19771.
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From page 108... ...
By focusing on relationships important to the manifestation of effects, they help to develop specific, testable hypotheses to explain why particular effects should or should not occur. Conceptual models can also help to identify logical errors, to highlight factors that require special study, to synthesize ideas and knowledge, and to communicate information (Beanlands and Duinker, 19831; guidance for developing conceptual models can be found in Holling (1978)
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From page 109... ...
Recent efforts to protect and conserve species have shown how management of a population requires consideration of its relationship with other populations (Franker and Soule, 1981; Schonewald-Cox, 1983; Soule and Wilcox, 19801. And only recently has it been recognized that systematic management procedures e.g., sex-biased or size-biased harvesting-can lead to undesirable genetic changes over remarkably short periods (Chapter 11.
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From page 110... ...
The control of eutrophication in Lake Washington depended on knowledge of flow rates through the lake and the low turnover of phosphate in lake sediments (Chapter 201. DEVELOPING AND TESTING HYPOTHESES Statements about relationships between proposed actions and ecosystem components or processes are, in effect, hypotheses that can be tested.
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From page 111... ...
Similarly, scientists at Southern Indian Lake (Chapter 21) were able to test hypotheses derived from the results of other lake studies and current limnological models.
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From page 112... ...
Predictions in the Atomic Energy Commission radiation studies were derived from knowledge of food-chain dynamics and laboratory studies, and hypotheses were continually revised as predictions were tested experimentally (Chapter 221. In the Lake Washington case, scientists predicted not only specific changes in water quality, but also the periods over which deterioration and recovery would occur (Chapter 201.
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From page 113... ...
Monitoring is most effective when it is designed to test ecological hypotheses and when preproject studies have provided baseline information (see Beanlands and Duinker, 19831. Postproject studies of the accuracy of predictions are useful, but are not as useful as followup monitoring that coordinates preproject and postproject sampling and that tests relevant hypotheses.
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From page 114... ...
SUMMARY: DEVELOPING A STUDY STRATEGY A study strategy is a plan for conducting ecological studies to help to predict and manage ecological effects. It is motivated by the environmental goals identified in scoping and is organized around the scientific objectives defined on the basis of the goals.
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From page 115... ...
· Explains clearly how each part of the study fits into the overall design. · Provides for baseline and followup monitoring to determine the effects of the project or perturbation.
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