Enhancing Human Performance Issues, Theories, and Techniques, Background Papers (Complete Set) (1988) / Chapter Skim
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PART VI. Parapsychological Techniques
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A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF MAJOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES IN PARAPSYCHOLOGY INVOLVING RANDOM EVENT GENERATORS OR REMOTE VI EWI NG . James E
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, psychical research was born in the latter part of the nineteenth century out of the desire to bend the scientific method to the study of the putative non-material aspect of human existence. The formation of the Society for Psychical Research in England in 1882 marked the beginning of organized 2
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( Alcock ) empirical inquiry into post-mortem survival.
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(Alcock) physicalist explanations.
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(Alcock) is capable of inhibiting them.
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(Alcock) investigation.
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(Alcock3 means of statistical tests, would decide whether or not the observed success rate exceeded that expected if only "chance" were operating. In the study of precognition or telepathy or clairvoyance, the typical task involved a set of 25 cards consisting of 5 sets of 5 different symbols (the "Zener" deck)
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Soal, have fallen into disrepute as evidence grows that Soal cheated. Psychokinesis research The history of psychokinesis research is especially relevant to this paper since the random event generator research which will be discussed in detail falls in that domain.
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In an re-analysis of 18 studies by Rhine and his colleagues up to 1943, the vast majority showed this effect. However, Stanford points out that while the decline effect and other similar effects occasioned considerable interest because they seemed impervious to methodological artifact such as that due 9
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3281. Contemporary PK research has, in Stanford's view, been revolutionized by the introduction of electronic random event generators (REGs)
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The use of such equipment would mean that one could be reasonably certain that any observed departures from chance were not due to biases in the target sequences, or to errors in recording or analyzing the data, or to "sensory leakage" (i.e., the transmission, consciously or unconsciously, of information about a target from a sender to a receiver by normal sensory channels)
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With a random event generator driven by radioactive decay, it is difficult to imagine how one would identify which atom is about to decay next in order to postpone it for a brief interval, and it is also difficult to imagine what form the wish might take. While one might well imagine that subjects in a die-rolling study in which the goal is to produce more sixes might be repeating over and over to themselves "Come on, six, come on", what would one wish for in the quantum case?
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( Alcock ~ wish upon the ultimate mani fe~tation of that quantum process, be it the lighting of ~ particular lamp from amongst a set of lamps Or whatever. The use of a radioactive source as the basis of randomness not only provides true randomness for pet stud.les, but once one directs one's thinking to the level of quantum i s try i nod i n mechanics, it is natural, especially when one ~ physics, to think about the possible connection between alleged psychical phenomena and some of the paradoxes about reality which are served up by quantum mechanics.
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2 C ~ ~ . Indeed, almost all of the work which has been care fed out in the areas under review in this paper ~ i.e., the ability to influence random number generators and the ability to describe distant sites which are being visited by a "sender", which is referred~to as "remote viewing")
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His paper evaluates eight areas of parapsychology, including the two areas which this review addresses . Since he has already selected the studies which provide the best case f or remote viewing and f or menta ~ inf luence on random event generators, ~ and the present reviewer agrees with his del ineation in this regard I, there should me no apprehens i on about whether or not the stud ~ es 15
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Helmut Schmidt, a former research physicist, has promoted the use of electronic random event generators in parapsychological 16
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has observed, Schmidt's psi research has passed through several rather distinct stages: In the beginning, his Investigations bore primarily on the question of whether or not psi exists. Using a modulus-4 random number generator, Schmidt would have his subjects press one of four buttons, each under a lamp, and then depending on the output of his generator, which was ultimately dependent on radioactive decay, one or another of the lamps would light up.
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While continuing to explore the ostensible effects of PK on prerecorded series of random events, instead of using an actual series of random events he now uses randomly generated seed numbers, which when fed into an algorithm will generate a final score. Again, the subject's task is to a~ter-the series in some way.
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that the influence is a psychic one, a psi ef feet brought about either by the subjects themselves, or as Palmer (1985) iscusses, perhaps by the exper imenter, Schmidt, himse ~ f .
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Each experiment, or at least each group of two or three studies within a given research paper, tends to stand as an independent "miracle" in a sense, and having produced the miracle, Schmidt moves on without really "nailing down" just what it is that was going on. The lack of coherence in Schmidt's research thrust is perhaps most evident by the fact that he switches from one type of random event generator to another and from one type of task to another so frequently (often on an experiment to experiment basis)
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Schmidt's research rarely involves any kind of control group. For example, it would be germane to compare a group of subjects who are both allowed play sessions and allowed to decide when to start the test runs with a group allowed play sessions, but for whom the test runs begin at prespecified times.
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Schmidt consistently fails to do the sorts of post-hoc data-snooping that one would expect in the face of findings of the kind he has produced. One would think it essential to examine the actual target series used in each of his experiments, even if one is prepared to accept that any departures from randomness are caused by PK.
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It was actually worse than that; if the subject chose to try to make the lamps light in 23
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Since almost all of Schmidt's work requires that observed scores be compared to a "chance" score, it is critical to Schmidt's interpretation of his results to be able to assume that any bias in the data came about after the original generation of such data. It is to be expected that when a subject is trying to predict which of, say, four lights is going to be "randomly" chosen to light up next, and when there is a bias in the target sequence, the subject might quickly learn to match his or her response frequencies to the target frequencies, thus 24
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This is referred to as "probability learning" : relative frequency judgements tend to match the actual relative frequencies in such experiments (e.g., Estes, 1976; Radtke, Jacoby, & Goedel, 19711. In the PK situation as well, if there is a short term bias in the target series, we might expect that subjects will be able, at least in some cases, and depending on the degree of bias, to detect it.
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Obviously, if the apparatus was producing more 4s than it should have, on a short-term teas ts perhaps, the subject In the first study may well have detected this and believed that he was causing it, and the same bias could account for significant results in the subsequent study. Schmidt (1976)
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One could extend this down to the actual level of trial within run: for each trial, one could take the next two generated targets, and assign, using another random process, one as the target and the other as a control. Then at the end, one would have both a target series, modified perhaps by the PK of the subject, and a control series against which one could more properly evaluate the effect of the subJect's attempted lnterventlon.
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2. In the earlier studies particularly, the long control runs (randomization checks)
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5 . I n one study ~ Schmidt, 19 7 Oa I, Schmidt attempted to correct for the d i f ference In s ize between control runs and test runs by analyzing the control run data in blocks of a size similar to the test runs.
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The problem with this approach is that if one subject, for whatever reason, were to score very highly, and this might in some instances be because of methodological artifact or even fraud, then the pooling of data might yield overall significance, whereas, it might be more reasonable to point out, for example, that one 30
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H ~ Most of the Schmidt studies reviewed here suffer from lack of methodological rigour.
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(a) In some of Schmidt's earlier studies, the number of trials and/or sessions was not specified in advance, and this of course allows for optional stopping.
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Because Schmidt's theoretical orientation leads him to try to provide conditions which will allow the subjects to feel at ease while at the same time motivating them to do well on the test runs, he very often allows the subjects to have free play time on the equipment, with feedback about their hit rate. Then, should the subject feel that he or she is in a mood to do well, the subject is allowed to begin the session.
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7. In some cases, there was inadequate security, in that subjects were left to run test runs without the experimenter about.
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-Thus, although in some studies, Schmidt switched the outputs of his REG from time to time as an attempt to control for generator bias through counterbalancing, this procedure does nothing to prevent such exploitation of bias. Evaluation: The Schmidt studies Helmut Schmidt is a highly imaginative researcher who deserves credit for his creative attempts to unravel the properties of PK.
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, then there will always be the danger that subjects are unknowingly exploiting shortterm biases in the random target series. As long as efforts are not made to better insure that the REG output is free of bias, as could be done using the Hansel procedure, and so long as efforts are not directed at carefully analysing the actual target sequence, not Just for one subject but across subjects and across experiments using the same REG, so as to discover patterns or other biases, critics will be very 36
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study, while not perfect, provides a starting point for Schmidt and his colleagues to collect new data using procedures where the inadequacy of the REG is not an issue. THE JAHN RESEARCH A much more elegant and sophisticated research progra=~involving Random Event Generators has been underway for a number of years at Princeton University under the aegis of the Dean of Engineering, Robert Jahn, and with the participation of two psychologists, Roger Nelson and Brenda Dunne.
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terminology of ache Jahn team - in other words, a single binary digit 3 . ~ In keeping with the more conventional usage within parapsychology, and following Palmer's (1985)
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Ignoring the baseline runs, half the runs in this analysis were PK+ and the other half PK-. The mean number of hits on the PK+ runs was 100.043, significantly greater than the theoretical mean of 100 (p=.004)
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has translated these figures into a more conventional "hit" rate by treating a miss in a PK- run as a hit, (since it is in line with the subJect's goal) , to yield a hit rate of 50.02%, which he points out is lower than the 50.53` mean hit rate he calculated for the Schmidt studies.
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Another set of 12 exploratory series comprising 60,000 runs were carried out using a pseudo-random event generator (a computer algorithm) rather than the REG described above.
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While the data from two of the three subjects did not deviate significantly from chance, significant results were obtained across the seven series in which none other than Operator 010 was the subject. Evaluation: The Jahn research Jahn's team has gone to great lengths to try to ensure that their equipment is unbiased.
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A variation of the Hansel control recommended for the Schmidt studies might be useful here: one cou ld use a random process to decide whether the next run will count as an experimental run or a control run. Our ing control runs, the subject could be seated at the console but do ing nothing, and of course, the subject would be bI ind as Deco the nature of the control run ~ BL, PK+, PK- ~ .
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Palmer (19853 also draws attention to possible problems of data selection and optional stopping. As for the former, 44
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A good control condition is needed to ensure that the machine truly is unbiased, but more importantly it is essential that more attention be paid to the procedure, particularly with regard to specification in advance of the numbers of trials of each sort and their temporal relationship to one another, and with regard to security of the apparatus and data. There is certainly a mystery here, but based on the weaknesses in procedure mentioned above, there seems to be no good reason at this time to conclude that the mystery is paranormal in nature.
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In their "main series" of trials (Targ & Puthoff, 1977) , a total of 39 remote viewing trials were carried out with eight subjects .
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For each group, the transcripts of each subject's taperecorded descriptions along with his or her sketches were put in random order and given to an independent judge, whose task it was to visit each of the target sites used with that group and to rank-order all the transcripts according to the degree to which they appeared to correspond to the site. The sum of the ranks assigned to the response for each target was then calculated, and using exact probability tables, the likelihood of obtaining such a sum by chance was ascertained.
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(One must wonder why only the sketches were used and why they were lumped together3. Analysis of the data revealed a remote viewing effect significant only at the p < .05 level (one-tailed)
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had stated that all of the subjects' descriptions were given to the Judge in an unedited form. If there were cues which gave information as to the order of the transcripts in the series, and if the Judges were not given the list of target sites in a randomized order, there would be no difficulty matching up tramscripts and targets, most likely without even being aware of the importance of the cues.
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Targ and Puthoff (1977) had stated that all o.f the subjects' descriptions were given to the judges in a random order.
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Next, the five unpublished transcripts, edited to remove extraneous cues, were given to two Judges who then visited the target sites in a random order and independently ranked the transcripts at each location. Their rankings were not significantly different from chance expectation.
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responded to the Marks and Kamman direct cuing criticism by having Charles Tart., who was not involved in the original studies, edit the transcripts of the Price series In order to remove any possible cues, and then having the series rejudged by a new Judge, presenting both target sites and edited transcripts in a random order. Again, seven of the nine transcripts were correctly matched, and the results were significant at the p < 10 level.
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Given that the list of subject locations and the list of target sites had already been published in their correct order in Mind-Reach, then these cues would permit anyone familiar with that book the opportunity to match the descriptions with the targets on that basis of those remaining cues.
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, in one of the very first critiques of remote viewing research, pointed to another problem: the statistical analysis employed by Targ and Puthoff assumes that the trials are independent of one another. Yet, he argued, such independence is vitiated by the fact that immediately after giving his or her description, the subject was taken to the target site in order to obtain feedback about how successful he or she had been.
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principle, this would give a Judge sufficient information to make perfect matches at each site from the descriptions. Targ, Puthoff and May (1979)
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Calkins (1980) offered an example of how such studies should have been run: The subject should submit not only a sketch corresponding to his/her "perceptions" during the agent's visit to the site, but also a control sketch generated under the guise of another remote viewing ef fort when in fact, unknown to the subject, there was no target site and no outbound experimenter.
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{5) Subjective validation: Statistical analyses aside, it seems clear from the reports that subjects and judges alike were often struck by the correspondences between the subjects' descriptions and the target sites.
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Moreover, if information which does not fit is not taken into account in the evaluation, then the more a subject says, the more likely it is that a hit will be subjectively perceived (Karnes and Susman, 1979~. Summary: Given these various criticisms, there should remain little doubt that the Targ-Puthoff studies are fatally flawed, and that rather than trying to save something from them by arguing whether or not a given flaw pertains to a given subset of trials, remote viewing proponents should instead design and run a proper, well-controlled experiment with an appropriate control group.
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They carried out a replication of the Hammid precognitive remote viewing study, with Dunne as the agent, and obtained positive results (p<.OOB, onetailed) ; four of the eight trials resulted in direct hits (Dunne and Bisaha, 1979)
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The agent was then to spend 15 minutes at the appointed time the next day attempting to concentrate on the surround ings and tak ing a photograph which would later be compared against the percipient's description. Upon his return the agent gave the five photographs and brief descriptions of the target sites, in random order, to the percipient to rank order ~ ~ way.
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set about to develop an analytical scoring technique for remote viewing studies. Both sender and percipient were required to code their perceptions of the target in terms of 30 binary descriptors (such as indoors or outdoors)
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, thus leading to an artifactual correspondence between their reports, the authors carried out a rejudging of these data (Schlitz and Gruber, 19817. Two new Judges in Rome were asked to rank the percipients's impressions against the target sites, but were not given the agent's impressions.
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It is also unacceptable that the translation and ed iting of the transcripts involved Gruber, who knew the order of the target sites. For all these reasons, this study would not have been accepted for publication in a good psychology journal' its parapsychological nature aside.
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Unlike the other studies mentioned so far in this survey, this study was set up with a control condition. Moreover, rather than depending on the vagueness of the percipient's reports and the arbitrariness of the judging, this study presented each percipient with a response booklet in which 18 sites were represented' each on a separate page' by four photographs of the target site taken from different vantage points.
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The second trial was identical for both groups of subjects and similar to the traditional remote viewing trial. Judging was carried out using both a confidence rating scale and a rank order scale.
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study was better controlled than the earlier studies or the Targ Puthoff studies; it is interesting to note that the results in this case are much less striking than when conditions were less controlled. However, one can have no confidence at all that the significant results reported in this study have any real meaning, for there was no control condition to indicate the background "coincidental" rate.
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However, their work clearly points to the proper methodology to be used in the study of remote viewing. One must use a control condition for establishment of a baseline "guess" rate.
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More traditional control tr ials have also been suggested for the remote viewing research. Psycho ~ og i ca ~ r e s ear ch i s bu i It ar ound ~ he conce pt o f comparison of experimental and control conditions.
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. _ 1 STUDY SOURCE OF RANDOMNESS I TASK/GOAL/CIRCUbISTANCES I 1 1 1 1 1 1969a I modulus-4 quantum REG Iprecognition or PK I 1 1 i 1 1 1969b I Rand tables Iprecognition or clairvoyance I 1 1 1 1 1970a I binary quantum REG Icat, cockroaches as sub Sects I IPK 1 ~ modulus-4 quantum REG ~ internally different machine' electronic noise REG Itargets at high speeds Ivisual vs auditory f eedback [examination of role of qenI Orator on PK per f ormance l Ipre-recorded targets Ipre-recorded targets Ipre-recorded targets l 1 1970b l l l l i 1 l l l · I l l l ~ ~ .
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"Precognition of a quantum process": in this report, Schmidt presented the data from two experiments which examined the abilities of subjects to predict or influence the outcome of a quantum process. Tile statistical evaluation of success In these experiments is based on the likelihood of obtaining a hit by chance if the target series is random.
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' although the actual hit rate was 0.261 versus the chance expectation of 0.250. Evaluation: There were a number of weaknesses in this study, including the following: (a)
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It would illuminate the discussion of pass ible short-term biases in the REG to know whether or not the target sequences deviated very much f ram chance expectation. Schmidt does point out that one subject in the first experiment (who reported having attempted to influence the outcome rather than just predict it)
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One would like to examine the data for the other sub jects as well, in order to explore whether or not such departures from randomness were evident in the target ser ies presented to them as we ~ ~ . One must wonder what interpretat ion Schmidt would have given to the excess of reds had the sub ject not mentioned that he had tr fed to use PK, or if the red light had lit up signif Scantly less frequently than expected; one must a Iso wonder whether or not the sub]
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"Clairvoyance tests with a machine": Schmidt, again the sole experimenter in this research, views this experiment as a continuation of the '969a studies. However, rather than using a "real-time" random generator which allows for the operation of PK, Schmidt used as his target sequence a set of 100,000 digits (l,2,3,4)
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From page 677... ...
doublets and even triplets are not as one would expect from a random ser ies, then again, we might expect the sub jects to learn to exploit the biases in the ser ies . OVERALL JUDGEMENT: Given the lack of information about the randomness checks, and given that the actual target sequence was carefully analysed after the fact, the conclusions drawn by Schmidt are premature, and this paper would be unlikely to be accepted for publication in a peer-reviewed psychology journal even if only normal psychological processes were being investigated.
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: "A PK test with electronic equipment": With this study, Schmidt, again the sole experimenter, switched from the four-lamp modulus-4 random generator to a nine-lamp binary generator. The generator produced a random sequence of +is and -is, based on radioactive decay..
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Sub jects, as is typical in Schmidt ' s experiments, contributed varying amounts of data. No individual results were reported.
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Why, how can the task suddenly become a negative one? Or is this all because that initial group of sub jects just happened]
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In the PK mode , the ~ i ght correspond i ng to the de pressed button lit up, indicating a hit, only if the internal generator produced the number 4 ~ from amongst its range of I, 2, 3, and 4 ~ . Thus, only by psychokinetically forcing the production of fours could the sub ject increase the hit rate .
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From page 682... ...
Only the principal experimenter, Schmidt, knew that the exper iment included two types of tests . The r e was a total of 214 subjects in the precognition group and 157 in the PK group; there were varying numbers of sub jects per group, and data i s presented for groups, not individuals.
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Evaluation: No mention was made of any randomness checks in these two studies, but one would presume that Schmidt must have carried out the same kind of inadequate control runs that he carried out for earlier studies. Obviously, the above-chance scoring rates are only of interest if one can be certain that there were no biases in the target series.
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From page 684... ...
Note that f or the f i rst exper iment there was no paper punch; yet this is probably not why Schmidt ran the system only in one mode or the other f or any g iven gr cup, rather than switch) ng back and f orth without the sub jects' knowledge.
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From page 685... ...
In the "confirmatory" study, there were ten subjects, including Schmidt, chosen from a pool of subjects. Subjects were given feedback following each run; and sub jects chose in advance to take the ir feedback in either a visual or an auditory mode.
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In the slow speed, the sub ject is exposed to 100 targets per run and, in the fast speed, to 1000 per run. Therefore, the subject, if there is a bias, is likely to run over that bias in the 1000 number run and get a percentage of hits that i_ lower .
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From page 687... ...
One or the other was the target on a given trial (although we are not informed as to how this decision was made I, and so the sub ject's goal is to try to have that lamp light up. Once the sub ject act ivated the tr ial , a random process connected one or the other of the two generators and then, depending on the generator output, one or the other of the lamps was lit up.
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It is unfortunate that Schmidt viewed the recording of S-inact~ve only as a way of checking for displacement effects; had he recognized its potential as a control, then no doubt he would also have recorded the output of the C generator when it was inactive, and he would thus have had a control procedure very close to what Hansel has called f or a pair of random events for each trial, and a random selection of which is the target and which is the control . Why was not the output o f C recorded when it was inactive?
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3. Again, as seems typical with Schmidt, there was considerable sioppiness in allocation of sub jects and tr ials .
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Conf irmatory study: Sub jects compr ised a prespeci f fed number of laboratory visitors (30~. Each subject participated in one session of twenty test runs each, run as two sets of ten runs each with a lO-minute break in between.
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From page 691... ...
Second exper iment: Here Schmidt used a fast binary random generator which produced sequences of heads/tails at pitcher 30 or 300 per second (as in Schmidt, 1973 ~ . The sub ject was given both auditory feedback (variable frequency sound, the goal being to lower frequency)
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From page 692... ...
Each sequence of 64 binary digits was used 4 t imes i n succession, so that each head or tail caused four triggerings of either the easy or the difficult generator. There were forty sessions in the confirmatory series, and each of these consisted of four test runs; each run involved 64 random events, and feedback was given after each run.
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From page 693... ...
First, one mi ght want to postpone ser i ous ~ i scuss i on unt i ~ we have more detailed experimental information from several independent exper imenters . Second, the failure of the third experiment to give more than a marginally signif icant PK effect reminds us that we may still be overlooking some vital factors which have a stronger ef feet on the test results than the variables we are studying.
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From page 694... ...
The absence of randomization checks None were reported ~ by itself would render this paper unacceptable for publication in psychology Journals. Terry, J
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From page 695... ...
However , i t was found that the control sessions were b iased towards a smaller number of high tones, although the bias was non-significant. The authors added, "This non-significant bias, which also appears in the subconscious runs and the corresponding control runs, raises the question whether perhaps the random generator was biased, An extensive randomness test at the completion of the experiments, however, indicated no such bias" (p.
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From page 696... ...
momentarily generated random events were both involved, and the mail goal of the study was to compare the two with regard to PK effects. During ON intervals, the subject was exposed to a strobe light flashing at a frequency which he/she had preselected as beiges particularly pleasing, while during OFF intervals, the subject viewed ~ practically constant light source.
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From page 697... ...
The subject could not sensorially distinguish between momentarily generated and prerecorded sections. There were 200 test runs ~ i`'ided amongst the 12 sub jects .
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From page 698... ...
The random generator operated as a 16-sided die, and left on its own, the light should move an average of 16 steps in same direction before changing. Essentially, then, the generator produced a series of 32 random time intervals and the subjects's task was to lengthen tile odd-numbered intervals and shorten the others.
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From page 699... ...
One of them 'was a newcomer who impressed the experimenter with his confidence and his proficiency in martial arts" (p.94~! " In the main experiment, 100 test runs were run with Group U
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From page 700... ...
Evaluation: The quality is in many ways improved over earlier studies, but there are still the basic problems of of randomization checks (none mentioned) and optional starting following free play.
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From page 701... ...
There were ten sections of test runs; Schmidt was the sole subject in four of them, and one of two sub jects in three others . Another involved a s ingle subject, another involved two subjects, and a third involved six.
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From page 702... ...
. ~ ., _ _ _ ~ i_ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Evaluation: Although the effect is not all that large, this study is s much better designed and executed than the earlier studies that at least one has to concede that replication attempts should be mad.-.
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From page 703... ...
iB ) , clearly they are suggesting that either the sub jects or the observer who calculated the random sequence of H and L pairs had some kind of mental influence on the outcome; otherwise, why use subjects at all?
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From page 704... ...
It would have been so much easier simply to use one task, to have each subject perform for a f ixed number of tr ials, to use the sum of binary bits as the score, and so f orth . Obviously, it would have made sense in any normal psychological exper iment to have a control condition where no sub jects were used at all: just analyze the data at this point and compare them with what is generated when subjects are involved.
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From page 705... ...
(Alcock) order to try to understand the cause of the correlation, if it is replicated.
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From page 706... ...
19 69b 19 70a 19 7 Ob There were only 39 sess i ons, and we are not told over how many days these sessions were spread. We are given no information about the relationship between the control runs and the tests except for the "preferably after" comment.
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From page 707... ...
1974 1976 1978 No randomization checks mentioned. Randomness tests at the completion of the sessions ware consistent with the theoretically expected average run lengths of 64.
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From page 708... ...
~ Alcock ~ 19 ~ ~ None ment i oned 19 ~ 5 None ment i ones 9 8 6 No t requ i r ed 106
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From page 709... ...
1979 Precognitive remote viewing in the Chicago area: A replication of the Stanford experiment. Journal of Parapsychology 43:17-30.
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From page 710... ...
Karnes, E.W., 19 79 Karnes,E.W. & 19 79 er presented at convent i on, Tuf ts Ballou, J., Susman, Remote viewing: Failures to replicate with control comparisons .
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From page 711... ...
1986 Remote viewing exposed. Nature, 319:444.
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From page 712... ...
Rebuttal of criticisms of remote viewing experi ments. Nature 292:388.
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From page 713... ...
PK exper iments with animals as sub jects . Journal of Parapsychology, 34: 255-261.
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From page 714... ...
Evidence for direct interaction between the human mind and external quantum processes.
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From page 715... ...
Pp. 36-41 Zetetic Scholar transmiss i on in remote viewing exper iments .
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From page 716... ...
Rebuttal of criticisms of remote viewing exper i ments. Nature 292:388.
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Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.