Enhancing Human Performance Background Papers, Learning During Sleep (1988) / Chapter Skim
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DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
Pages 35-80
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No attempt is made in these studies to input information during deep stages of sleep; instead, presentations are timed to correspond with sleep onset, initial sleep, and early morning sleep -- periods in which significant EEG activations are likely to occur. Any improvements in performance obtained under these conditions would thus appear to reflect a compostite of wake and sleep experience, and not pure, unadulterated "sleep learning." While it appears clear that information whose presentation, during sleep, is not accompanied by EEG activation is not retained unpon awakening, it would be most interesting to know, for theoretical as well as for applied reasons, use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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New York: Academic Press. use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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New York: Academic Press. use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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Please use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution. REFERENCES ed., Current Research in Hypnopaedia .
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Please use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution. ACCELERATED LEARNING Robert E
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. A third source of new information and perspectives has been experimental research on such instructional methods as mastery learning (Bloom, 1976)
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These are elements of classroom organization that are at least as important use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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Persev use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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Again, effective instruction is not just good teaching. No matter how high the quality of instruction, students will use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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In recent years, the findings of these process-product studies have been incorporated into coherent instructional programs and evaluated in field experiments. Other coherent instructional methods not based on the process-product findings, such as mastery learning, cooperative learning, and individualized instruction methods, have al so been evaluated in field experiments.
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Please ACCELERATED LEARNING 54 presents a perspective on what is known now about each of the QAIT elements, explores the theoretical and practical ramifications of the interdependence of these elements for the design of effective instructional methods, and applies the QAIT formulation to a discussion of effective models for classroom instruction. Quality of Instruction Quality of instruction refers to the activities we think of first when we think of teaching: Lecturing, discussing, calling on students, and so on.
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Appropriate Levels of Instruction Perhaps the most difficult problem of school and classroom organization is accommodating instruction to the needs of students with different levels of prior knowledge and different learning rates. If a teacher presents a lesson on equations in two variables to a heterogeneous class, some students may fail to learn it because they have not mastered such prerequisite skills as solving equations in one variable.
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. Mastery learning and individualized instruction are two widely used means of accommodating instruction to students' needs.
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, provision of daily or weekly reports to parents on student behavior. Another is group use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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Cooperative learning methods (Slavin, 1983a, b) , which involve students working in small learning groups to master academic material, are instructionally effective forms of group contingencies discussed later in this paper.
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, but engaged time is a mediating variable linking alterable variables with student achievement. While allocated time must be an essential element in any model of classroom organization, research on this variable has found few consistent effects on student achievement.
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Student inputs refer to factors over which the school has little control in the short run: Student ability and those aspects of motivation to learn that students bring from home (as distinct use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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Instructional efficiency is simply the inverse of Carroll's "time needed to learn," and engaged time is essentially his "time available for learning." Instructional efficiency and engaged time are multiplicatively related to student achievement; obviously, if either is zero, then learning is zero. The QAIT model can be easily related to instructional efficiency and engaged time.
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The contention that the relationships between the alterable variables, instructional efficiency and engaged time, and student achievement are multiplicative is of critical importance to the model proposed here. In addition to implying that achievement will be zero if any of the alterable variables are zero, it also implies that while improving any one of the variables is likely to increase achievement arithmetically, improving more than one is likely to increase achievement geometrically.
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The remainder of this paper uses the concepts of the QAIT formulation to discuss research on several innovations directed at accelerating student achievement, and ends with a discussion of the application of these methods and of the QAIT model itself to military training. Individualized Instruction.
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Since the students themselves take responsibility for all checking and routine management, the teacher is free to spend all period teaching groups of students drawn from the different teams who are perform use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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and enhanced incentives for learning. Attention to all four elements of effective instruction turned out in this case to be necessary to produce a positive effect on student achievement.
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For example, in many tutorial programs the computer will provide additional instruction or explanation before giving aditional problems of the same type, or use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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. In terms of the QAIT model, CAI produces positive effects principally when the gains it provides in appropriate levels of instruction are use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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The basic idea behind mastery learning is the principle that differences in student performance are due to differences in the time students need to learn. Mastery learning theorists (e.g., Bloom, 1976)
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Both forms of mastery learning deal primarily with providing appropriate levels of instruction. They approach the problem of student heterogeneity not by accommodating instruction to student performance levels (as in individualized instruction)
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. The research on group-based mastery learning may support the prediction of the QAIT model that attending only to appropriate levels of instruction is not enough to significantly increase student achievement, but when a second element is also increased (in this case time)
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When performance on those objectives is assessed, it is hardly surprising that mastery learning students achieve them better than other students. Even when mastery learning and control teachers agree on a common set of objectives and a common examination, it is likely that the mastery learning teachers will focus on those objectives more directly than will control teachers, who are much more likely to teach additional material that will not be on the test.
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which give tutors step-by-step procedures to follow in instructing and praising their tutees. As in the case of CAI and mastery learning, effects of peer tutoring are particularly strong when tutoring is done in addition to, not instead of, regular classroom instruction.
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Please ACCELERATED LEARNING 73 Keller Plan, and is often used to provide corrective instruction in group-based mastery learning. Informal peer tutoring is central to cooperative learning, discussed in the following section.
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Achievement effects of cooperative learning models using task specialization are less clear cut. Consistent positive effects in social studies have been found for one complex model of this kind, called Group Investigation (Sharan, Hertz-Lazarowitz, & Ackerman, 1980)
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compared SALT use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution.
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For example, if a training program had clearly specified, easily measured objectives, then some form of mastery learning might be appropriate. If resources were available to provide corrective instruction outside of class to students who failed to achieve mastery on a formative test, then group-based mastery could be a very effective strategy.
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If more experienced or higher-ranking individuals are available to provide one-to-one instruction to trainees, this can be very effective. In particular, peer tutoring may be effectively used as corrective instruction in mastery learning programs.
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Producing effective, transportable instructional models is a matter of analyzing instructional objectives and mobilizing training resources to provide high levels of instructional quality, appropriate levels of instruction, strong incentives to learn, and adequate time for learning. These are the raw materials of effective instruction, and instructional design to meet any particular objective and setting is a question of engineering available resources to provide them.
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