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Cognitive Factors in the Design and Development of Software in the Space Station
Pages 176-200

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From page 176...
... ~BLEMS Transfer of User Skills Inconsistent user interfaces in which the same basic function is performed by several methods In different contexts resume= transfer and interferes with retention (Poison, 1987; Postman, 1971~. m e Spare Station's numerous computer-based systems and applications programs will be developed by different organizations over a period of many years.
From page 177...
... Emus, editing an axis label on a graph, editing an operating system command, or modifying a line of text with an editor all require different sequence= of user actions. The Comprehension of Complex Visual Displays Complex visual displays using graphics, color, and possibly motion will be used in the space station to present various kinds of information to crew members carrying out complex tasks.
From page 178...
... Detailed Information-processing Models The first, an] most important, solution is that designs for applications programs, complex visual displays, and cooperative human-oomputer problem solving systems be based on detailed, information-processing models of cognitive processes involved ~ the performance of specific tacks.
From page 179...
... m ese simulated task scenarios are used to rapidly explore a large number of variables involving the environment and crew composition iteratively develc ping a more optimal design. Detailed models of the cognitive Operations and physical actions required to carry out various types of tasks involving interaction between man and machine can be used in a similar fashion to aptimize designs for user interfaces.
From page 180...
... Develc ping a system that optimizes ~~C~hility parameters requires understanding of the task and the cognitive processes involved An performing the task. Mast features incorporated into user interfaces are not good or bad per sa.
From page 181...
... The next section describes some of the difficult problems involved in the design of effective complex visual displays. me fourth section discusses the problems involved in the develcpment of effective cooperative manrrachine systems.
From page 182...
... m e production rule formalism enables one to derive quantitative predictions of training time, transfer of user skills, and performance. m e next two sections describe each framework.
From page 183...
... Production Rules and the GoMS MbJel A production system model is derived by first performing a GOMS analyses and then writing a program implementing the methods and control structures described in the GCMS model. Although GCM5 models are better structural and qualitative description of the ~c~riedge nectary to perform tasks, expressing the kn~riedge and processes he production system formation permits the derivation of well motivat - , quantitative predictions for training time, transfer, and execution time for various tasks.
From page 184...
... mese same models can in turn be used to design consistent user interfaces for a wide range of basks and systems that will promote similar large reductions .un training time and saving in training costs. A m eoretica1 Model of Positive Transfer The dominant theoretical approach for explaining specific transfer effects is due to m Orndike and Wood ward (1901)
From page 185...
... (1986) found very large transfer effects, on the order of four to one reductions in training time, for learning to perform a simple utility bask on a menu-based, stand-alone, word processor.
From page 186...
... There is excessive h~-riedge of the basic visual p ~ cesses urxierlying color and form perception (Graham, 1965; Wairaven, 1985~. Detailed models of the comprehension of complex visual displays do not exist.
From page 187...
... Dealing with issues involving more complex displays, consistency, and the use of displays as interfaces to systems with significant embedded intelligence are more complex design problems. The design problems wit ~ have to be solved using the combination of emp~rically-based evaluation methods combined with detailed models of the task and a theory of the comprehension of visual displays.
From page 188...
... Many issues concern mg the design of such systems can be understood fries experience with highly automated commercial aircraft (Chambers and Nagel, 1985) , automatic test equipment (Richardson et.
From page 189...
... . Limitations of Current Expert Systems Intelligent systems c ~ actually complicate the tack of human user, e.g., telercbots and applications with natural language interfaces.
From page 190...
... The discussion of function allocation begins with a general assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of human and computers as problem solvers. m is assessment is ~ the form of a characterizations human and machine components listing the strengths and weaknesses of each.
From page 191...
... information about the state of the aircraft that is relevant to the current task. The ability to display relevant information would prevent information overload and augment human working memory by providing an external representation relevant information about the system's state.
From page 192...
... However, a system ~ which human users can Override the machine partner compromises the goal of developing truly cooperative human-oomputer problem solving systems. Information Overload, working memory failures, and failures to integrate historical data in making diagnoses are highly probable failure modes of human users.
From page 193...
... m is chapter has recc=mcnded that information processing models of cognitive processes be the basis for the design of applications programs, complex visual displays and cooperative human-computer problem solving systems. A theoretical technology should be applied on a large scale to solve interface design problems on the Space Station.
From page 194...
... Current research ~ cognition and perception provides a solid foundation on which to build such models. It is possible that models of comprehend ion of complex displays can be based on the extensive body of theoretical results obtained on the processes involved in text comprehension (e.g., van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983~.
From page 195...
... These include models of human diagnostic reasoning, cooperative problem solving, and models of the processes involved in generating and comprehending useful explanations. A cooperative system must incorporate an extremely sophisticated model of its human partner which in turn requires a detailed understanding of how humans carry out the specific task performed by the system as well as the general characteristics of the human information processing system and its failure modes.
From page 196...
... Artificial Intelligence 20:215-251.
From page 197...
... A 1985 Design alternatives for user interface management systems based on experience with cousin.
From page 198...
... M 1985 Graphics and human information processing: A review of five books.
From page 199...
... C., et al. 1983 Designing the SEAR user Interface.
From page 200...
... N 1984 Guidel ~ es for Designing User Interface Software.


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