Improving Interactions Between Coastal Science and Policy Proceedings of the Gulf of Maine Symposium (1995) / Chapter Skim
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Using Indicators of Enviromental Quality as a Tool to Maintain the Gulf of Maine
Using Indicators of Enviromental Quality as a Tool to Maintain the Gulf of Maine
Pages 183-228
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Using Indicators of Environmental Quality as a Tool to Maintain the Gulf of Maine
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Indicators of marine environmental quality could provide a means to monitor the health of the Gulf of Maine. Many different indicators are conceivable, each related to specific environmental problems.
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allows predictions of the temporal and spatial scales of environment quality issues. The Gulf of Maine serves as an excellent example for the application of environmental indicators to evaluate marine environmental quality.
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The National Status and Trends Program for Marine Environmental Quality of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) surveyed about 300 sites in the United States coastal area for concentrations of trace metals and lipophilic organic contaminants since 1984.
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Concentrations of other trace metals also appear to be elevated at several locations within the Gulf of Maine, including Boothbay Harbor, Casco Bay, and Penobscot Bay (Larsen, 19921. From data sets collected in the NOAA National Status and Trends Program, hive sites within the Gulf of Maine had high concentrations of trace metals (greater than one standard deviation above the geometric mean for all stations; NOAA, 19911: I
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Salem Harbor - low molecular weight and high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons; 5. Boston Harbor - low molecular weight and high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons; and hydrocarbons.
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, with the exception of highly contaminated areas such as New Bedford Harbor, Mass. Companson of data for NOAA National Status and Trends Stations in the Gulf of Maine reveal that only Boston Harbor and Salem Harbor have high concentrations of total PCBs and total DDT.
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Among the NOAA National Status and Trends Mussel Watch stations, the following sites surveyed in the Gulf of Maine were among the 20 most contaminated sites in U.S. coastal waters for several trace metals (NOAA, 1989~: I
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A comparison of trace metal concentrations in fish liver samples taken from 1984 to 1987 at the same sites as sediment samples were collected indicated a gradient of trace metal contamination throughout the Gulf of Maine, with moderate to high concentration of individual trace metals being detected in samples from Casco Bay, Boston Harbor, Salem Harbor, and Quincy Bay (NOAA, 1987~. For lipophilic organic contaminants, samples from Boston Harbor and Quincy Bay have the highest concentrations of total DDT, other chlorinated hydrocarbons, and total PCBs (Gottholm and Turgeon, 19921.
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In addition to histopathological damage, sublethal toxic effects of contaminants in marine organisms include impairment of physiological processes that may alter the energy available for growth and reproduction, and other effects on reproductive and developmental processes, including direct genetic damage. Biological effects associated with bioconcentration of lipophilic contaminants have been attributed to the uptake of specific compounds and/or their metabolites, rather than the total-body burden of hydrocarbons or chlorinated hydrocarbons (Anderson et al., 1980; Matins and Hodgins, 1981; Windows et al., 1982, 1987; Capuzzo et al., 19841.
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Monitoring programs for measuring the fate and effects of chemical contaminants in coastal ecosystems should be designed and executed to provide meaningful information on (~) spatial distribution of contaminants; (2)
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The human health concerns of contaminated resources are obvious. Yet, it is difficult to ascertain the relationship between chronic responses of organisms to contaminated habitats and large-scale alterations in the functioning of marine ecosystems, as well as large-scale contamination of fishery resources.
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Marine Environmental Research 23: 103-133. Butler, P.A.
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U.S. Mussel Watch: 1977-78 results on trace metals and radionuclides.
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Trends Program. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 52.
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Fish and Shellfish: A Historical Assessment Report. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 39.
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NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 49, Ocean Assessment Division, Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, Md.
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i: ~ it: ~| 8 . Casco Bay campfire ( ~9 Saco Bay ~i ~10 Great Bay ~\~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~' ~ ~\~> 11 Merrimack River I if.
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National Status and Trends Program monitoring sites within the Gulf of Maine (from Gottholm and Turgeon, 19921.
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m v v 9 ~3 ~4 Ct · Cat ~·~ A o v v · ~ A .
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Indicators may be used to quantify contaminant concentrations in the environment, evaluate species and ecosystem effects of stressors, or to determine public health risks. Numerous efforts have been made in the Gulf of Maine to use indicators for addressing a variety of environmental quality issues, including the Mussel Watch program for monitoring contaminants (Goldberg, 1975; Lauen stein et al., 1990; O'Connor, 1991)
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If the objective is to determine contaminant levels in an area, then it is important to determine the relationship between contaminant levels in the environment and levels in the indicator. If the objective is to protect public health, then it is also important to determine the relationship between contaminant levels in the indicator and biological effects in humans.
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Mytilus edFulis, the blue mussel, has been used as part of the Mussel Watch program (Gottholm and Turgeon, 1992) and the more localized Gulfwatch program (Sowles et al., 1992; 1994)
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Comparisons of results to National Status and Trends results indicated good agreement between studies at common sites (Sowles et al., 1992~. Mistakes and problems encountered necessitated adjustment of protocols and objectives during the first two years,
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1991. Concentrations of organic contaminants in mollusks and sediments at NOAA National Status and Trend sites in the coastal and estuar~ne Uniter!
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1994. Evaluation of Gulf;vatch: ·992 Pilot Project of the Gulf Maine Marine Environmental Monitoring Plan.
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Despite existing expenditures, marine monitoring programs are still criticized for providing insufficient information to support sound environmental management decisions (Committee on a Systems Assessment of Marine Environmental Monitoring, 19901. Moreover, this same study notes that many monitoring programs have not been adequately linked to environmental research programs designed to identify pollution sources and the transport, fate, and final effects of pollution on the environment.
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Finally, a framework is briefly described that can be used for developing monitoring priorities and for determining optimal expenditures on monitoring activities. Such a framework could improve the interaction among managers, and natural and social scientists in designing useful marine monitoring programs.
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Information monitoring can help to determine whether or not particular pollution controls are effectively limiting key pollutants to the marine environment, or whether such controls are unnecessary, excessive, or even misplaced, given the transport and fate characteristics of the pollutant once it reaches the marine environment. Such information can save large expenditures on pollution control that would otherwise be wasted by being directed to the wrong source, the wrong pollutant, or the wrong geographic location.
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There may be several pollution abatement strategies, each associated with particular monitoring requirements, that could achieve a desired level of water quality. If managers were to choose the alternative that minimizes public agency monitoring costs, it might induce greater private abatement expenditures, so that the combination of abatement and monitoring costs would be greater than for an alternative abatement strategy that involves greater monitoring costs, but tower private abatement expenditures.
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Another area where socioeconomic monitoring is crucial is in completing the linkage between changing land-use patterns and impacts on the marine ecosystem. While information monitoring can help determine how changing levels of emissions are likely to affect marine waters, predicting how such emissions are likely to change requires socioeconomic information.
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This paper briefly outlines some of the features of the policy-making process that those interested in using environmental indicators need to keep in mind. An important issue in shaping the development of indicator series is what stage in the policy-making process the information is designed to assist.
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While long-term monitoring programs can provide adequate data, the need for decisions often predates the availability of such long-term data by months or years. This is particularly the case with broad-scale vita]
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Economic and environmental indicators are becoming an essential part of public policymaking. All public policy is being challenged to demonstrate performance, and indicators will play a critical role.
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The recent expansion of interest in using indicators should be viewed with a cautionary note. Public policy making is as prone to fads as any endeavor, and history is littered with such great policy reforms as program-planning budgeting and zero-based budgeting.
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, Judith McDowell (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
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For most monitoring programs, the support in terms of budgets, infrastructure, and expertise is insufficient. In the Gulf of Maine region, the potential users of monitoring information include local, state or provincial, and federal regulatory agencies, concerned stakeholders, and regional programs (such as the Regional Association for Research in the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf of Maine Regional Marine Research Board, and the Gulf of Maine Council on the
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. Some progress has been made at local, state/provincial, regional, and international levels on monitoring programs, but much work remains to be done.
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. Characteristics of Successful Monitoring Programs Drawing on a discussion of the successes and shortcomings of existing monitoring programs (i.e., Mussel Watch and Gulf Watch, see [ones, this volume, pp.
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Ways to Improve the Interaction Between Scientists and Policymakers The monitoring of indicators of environmental quality, both natural and social, is an integral part of good environmental policy and management and is critical to the relationship between scientists and policymakers. To ensure that such monitoring programs are effective and efficient as possible, the following principles should be observed: I
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6. Further develop the potential for coordination of the research and monitoring programs under the memorandum of understanding among the Regional Association for Research in the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf of Maine Regional Marine Research Board, and the Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment, including the potential for citizen monitoring of appropriate indicators.
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