Improving Interactions Between Coastal Science and Policy Proceedings of the Gulf of Maine Symposium (1995) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Responding to the Cumulative Impacts on Land and Water Activities in the Region's Estuaries and Near-Coastal Environments
Responding to the Cumulative Impacts on Land and Water Activities in the Region's Estuaries and Near-Coastal Environments
Pages 63-116
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hisnaging the Cumuladve In! pac~ of Land sad Water Activities in the Gulf of Elaine P~gion's Estuaries and Near-Coasta1 [environments
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, and the widespread effect of tourism on coastal resources. Understanding cumulative impacts requires a fundamental understanding about how ecosystems operate, how they have changed over time, and the extent and timing of previous individual impacts.
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The implementing regulations of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) define cumulative impacts as "the impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future 'Based on work performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, managed for the U.S.
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Commission report highlighted the need to address developmental and environmental imperatives simultaneously by calling for development that "meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations." We cannot claim to be working toward sustainable development until we can quantitatively assess cumulative impacts on the environment: the two concepts are inextricably linked in that the elusiveness of cumulative effects likely has the greatest potential of keeping us from achieving sustainability. In this paper, assessment and management frameworks relevant to cumulative impacts are discussed along with recent literature on how to improve such assessments.
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cumulative impact assessments and subsequent management of hydropower permits probably constitute the most extensive example of cumulative impact work within a U.S. federal agency.
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Furthermore, the inclusion of uncertainty in cumulative impact assessments should assist the risk manager in making policy or management decisions, which usually require trade-offs, to curtail cumulative effects. Irwin and Rodes (1992)
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During the National Research Council's symposium Improving Interactions Between Coastal Science and Policy in the Gulf of Maine Region, discussions highlighted such impediments and included the following recommendations: · modify academic reward systems to encourage applied research and to improve science-policy interactions, · create incentives and/or provide adequate funcling for interdisciplinary assessments, and · identify and foster academic degree programs that produce graduates skilled in integrating information and communicating it to all parts of society. Technioues for Assessing Cumulative Impacts Shopley and Fuggle (1984)
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In their report on methodologies and mechanisms for management of cumulative coastal environmental impacts, Rieser and Vestal stress not only the contribution that landscape ecology has today but also it importance in the future. Improving Cumulative Impact Assessment and Management Many ideas have been discussed in the literature about how we can improve cumulative impact assessment, but only when assessment and management activities work together can we hope to be effective in understanding and controlling cumulative effects.
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~ ~ ~` ~ `' '~ ~^ no_ - ~ ~ ~ ~ _~ ~ v_ ~_ .' ~ I' ~ ~. ~ ~ J all ~ '' as_ range of situations and that utilizes adaptively the most appropriate methods anal techniques." He states that to be effective, a cumulative impact assessment must use both a problem solving process and scientific cause and effect, while cumulative impact management must use both goal setting and collaboration.
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However, cumulative impact assessment needs to be viewed as an ongoing process and not a one-time report. Numerous examples or case studies of cumulative impact assessments can be studied for insights.
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1990. Cumulative impacts of hydropower development: Reaching a watershed in impact assessment.
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1985. Cumulative impact assessment in environmental planning: A coastal wetland watershed example.
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1993. Assessing cumulative impact on fish and wildlife in the Salmon River Basin, Idaho.
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1989. Annotated bibliography of ecological cumulative impacts assessment.
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o 3 3 Q o 3 _. o 3 A 1 1 Figure 1 Framework for ecological risk assessment (Risk Assessment Forum, 1992)
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Other 1 Quantify | | Cost consequences | | Benefits Human Health | ~| I Wetland/ ~ Riparian Nonmarket I Pattern Valuation _ 0= Policy Control Costs Figure 2 Integrated assessment illustrates need to consider scientific, economic, and policy interrelationships.
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=' = ..... ~ ~ Field _ Biologist Field Practicality Indicator Assessment Utility Figure 3 The assessment scientist (assessors plays a critical role in linking what the policymaker and society are interested in knowing with the data being collected by field and laboratory scientists.
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Andes present the inf<:~mation e develop rnecha~n~sn~s to work with dither programs propose changes in o~anizat'~:l~structure or legislation Figure 4 Framework for matching boundaries of decisions and of cumulative impacts (Irwin and Rodes, 1992~. Used with permission from the World Wildlife Fund.
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_ / Consider Conceptual Models for Extrapolation of Results to Other Conditions and Systems Figure 5 Research activities being undertaken to link environmental indicators from the U.S. EPA's Environment Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP)
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Despite the fact that a large and growing majority of people live in close proximity to an estuary, the dynamic features of these ecosystems are not familiar to most. The extent to which estuaries play roles in food or energy production, recreation, transportation, or human health is largely unrecognized until those systems collapse under the cumulative effects of human activities combined with natural processes of change.
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, affecting sea surface temperature (Loafer and Garrett, 1978) , nutrient recycling (Campbell and Wrobleski, 1986)
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As the shape of the estuary changes, so does its relationship with the oceanic tide. In the upper Bay of Fundy, for example, evidence indicates that the tidal range 4,000 years ago was about 2 meters; as a result of sea level rise, isostatic rebound, and erosion, the tidal range of Minas Basin has increased at a fairly steady rate of about 20 centimeters per century to its present range of more than 16 meters (Amos, 1978; Bleakney, 19861.
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From page 88... ...
instances where public health has been placed at risk, as with the appearance of domoic acid in mussels in Prince Edward Island, serve to enhance awareness of estuarine processes and of the cumulative effects of human activities, particularly among the public. in order to enhance our knowledge of the {ong-term changes taking place in estuaries, whether natural or anthropogenic, we need to establish a comprehensive monitoring program for critical index properties in the Gulf.
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I Acadia Centre for Estuarine Research, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
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1. Acadia Centre for Estuarine Research, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
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Journal. Fisheries Research Board of Canada 30:856-859.
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What is the societal impact when one more fishermen is sold a permit to fish for lobster? These are the kinds of questions that might ultimately be answered with a consideration of the socioeconomic effects of cumulative impacts in estuaries.
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The circulation patterns of fresh and salt water in estuaries, for example, affect the productivity of planktonic organisms which, in turn, affects the survival of many species of fish, shellfish, and migratory birds. It is the mystery in the "mysterious balance" of the physical, chemical, and biological components of estuaries that underlies some of the difficulty in detecting cumulative impacts.
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Nevertheless., ne says that lagoon science means that tile right questions are asked, rigorous methodologies are used, reliable and verifiable results are provided, and it is ~! done in terms the decisionmaker can understand." ~ don't disagree, but ~ also do not believe that cumulative impacts in estuaries can be managed only through "facts" revealed by physical science, even if that science considers water quality, benthic communities, and other aspects of natural science and history, chemistry, hydrologic physics, sediments, etc.
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. But it will be rare that a scientist will be able to make a very specific, quantified prediction of cumulative impacts resulting from a specific project." It is up to policymakers to "determine which resources are valued and what trade-offs they are willing to make to protect those resources." Social scientists can aid policymakers in such evaluations.
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One advantage of such a plan is that probable future development is taken into consideration, thus cumulative impact analysis can be incorporated in the process. In addition, potential adversarial relationships can be avoided if all the stakeholders are involved in the development of the plan.
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Because of the nature of cumulative impacts, it is likely that ..
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What is the Appropriate Policy Development Perspective? 1 In selecting my vantage point for this discussion, ~ reviewed several perspectives.
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Why are Cumulative Impacts So Tough? What makes the issue of cumulative impact different from other aspects of environmental protection and management In the estuar~ne and coasm environments Understanding this question is essential to the design of both the needed research and for communicating research results.
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2. Historical research is needed to identify and illuminate the consequences of past human activity that have had cumulative impact.
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· Set up visits to labs to create a better environment for discussion of ~ Involve legislators as participants in educational programs, particularly seminar style discussions of research problems, results, and implications. · Use nonscientific opinion leaders as messengers to convey and validate your scientific findings.
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While regulatory actions, resource management programs, and tax and economic policies instituted by state, provincial, or federal governments will continue to be undeniably important, they will not be sufficient to achieve the desired results. Specifically, ~ suggest that we support and strengthen regional fore (substate/province3 for discussion and action on cumulative impact issues.
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Managing cumulative impacts requires the integration of the results of scientific activities focused on individual environmental stresses, as well as combinations of stresses. Cumulative impacts often involve incremental changes over time that are unrecognized until a problem has reached crisis proportions.
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Most scientific institutions and disciplines have difficulty in addressing cumulative impacts because the study and management of many cumulative impacts requires interdisciplinary science activities. The evaluation of cumulative impacts requires an analysis of multiple, additive, and synergistic effects, over a longer period of time and on more complex scales than is traditional, within a planning context that takes into account past and future conditions.
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Information Needs of Policymakers Policymakers need a variety of information to enable them to manage cumulative impacts. In addition to information, they need to have legal, administrative, and technical support to incorporate cumulative impacts in the decision-making process.
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The same knowledge base of landscape patterns and structure does not exist for marine or estuarine systems; therefore, the causes and significance of cumulative impacts on marine systems are much less certain. In addition, marine systems possess unique variables, for example, three-dimensionality and larval transport over large distances, that prevent the direct application of landscape techniques developed for terrestrial systems.
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Policy interactions Scientific questions associated with assessing cumulative impacts are quite difficult, and scientists are somewhat daunted by questions raised under this issue because it involves so many processes and factors that not are well understood individually, much less in an integrated sense. Scientific investigations of cumulative impacts may require a higher degree of certainty or precision than is needed by management or regulatory programs.
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A NEPA-like process allows greater opportunity for managing cumulative impacts. Involvement of stakeholders in coastal policy making was highlighted as an important element of improving the use of science in coastal management.
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The group suggested integrating or coordinating the evaluation of research and management programs and activities, for example, the Section 312 review of state CZM programs and NERRs. This suggestion could also logically be extended to other programs, such as the National Estuary Program.
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The hypothetical cumulative impact was the decline of shellfish harvest as a result of pathogens harmful to humans. The group focused on the effect of land-use policies on this problem.
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The provision of sound scientific information might be impeded by: · insufficient time to acquire, compile, and interpret the necessary information, · inadequate resources (funding) and lack of incentives to ensure that scientific work is performed and effectively communicated to policymakers, · uncertainties about the conclusions regarding cause and effect relationships, · political realities that discourage the development and communication of scientific information,
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Second Scenario: Cumulative Impacts in Large-Scale Setting Dealing with cumulative impacts on a larger scale is likely to involve all the factors mentioned for the small-scale scenario, plus some additional factors unique to the large-scale scenario. There are additional policymakers and implementors, such as international bodies, requiring that more decisions be made.
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, to improve sciencepolicy interactions. The following suggestions recognize that addressing cumulative impacts will require interdisciplinary scientific input.
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scientists. A fundamental need in the Gulf of Maine region is for an environmental impact assessment process at the state level akin to the federal environmental impact assessment process required under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
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