Placing Children in Special Education A Strategy for Equity (1982) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
2 Placement in Special Education: Historical Developments and Current Procedures
2 Placement in Special Education: Historical Developments and Current Procedures
Pages 23-44
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 23... ...
We then review the historical origins of special education in America. Within the historical context, the central role of the standardized intelligence test for identification and placement of mentally retarded students receives special note.
|
From page 24... ...
With this change in definition, many children previously considered mentally retarded, although mildly so, were transferred to the normal population. Not only has the definition of mental retardation changed, but the boundaries that define eligibility for placement in programs for mentally retarded students in public schools also vary among states and districts.
|
From page 25... ...
There is, nonetheless, some consistency in the characteristics of individuals currently classified as educable or mildly mentally retarded within our school systems. Age One of the most consistent findings is the marked drop in prevalence rates of mild mental retardation with age.
|
From page 26... ...
Where such data are available, however, they consistently indicate that the male-female ratio is larger among black children than white children. Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Sociocultural Factors However defined, the prevalence of mild mental retardation is correlated with the socioeconomic status of the family and the neighborhood in which a child lives (the lower the status, the higher the rate)
|
From page 27... ...
. Biosocial Characteristics In contrast to most of the people who are characterized as more seriously mentally retarded, the frequency of observable abnormal medical conditions is negligible in most mildly mentally retarded persons.
|
From page 28... ...
In particular, labeling a student "mentally retarded" allowed the school system to classify and separate children on the basis of their intellectual functioning and performance. Before the introduction of special programs in public schools, the care and education of mentally retarded individuals were undertaken privately by families or in institutions.
|
From page 29... ...
Long-range savings also were envisioned, since mentally retarded children receiving vocational education in the schools might obtain self-supporting jobs and thus not become burdens on society (Sarason and Doris, 1979~. INTELLIGENCE TESTING FOR PLACEMENT OF MENTALLY RETARDED STUDENTS The origins of the IQ test are well known.
|
From page 30... ...
Subnormality was identified with IQs below 70, embracing about 3 percent of the total population.7 Large-scale IQ testing highlighted the number of subnormal children in the public schools, leading to public pressure for the control and regulation of socially deviant children. Intelligence testing was quickly adopted by the education system as an objective, expedient, and efficient method of identifying children deemed unsuitable for advanced academic studies as well as those children thought to have the greatest potential for rapid advancement (Lazarson, 19751.
|
From page 31... ...
Parent and advocacy groups for the handicapped, dominated primarily by the middle class, were demanding an expansion of the scope of special education and an increase in the quality of services provided by the public schools for handicapped children. Groups representing blacks and other minorities were pressing not for separate special education services but for an expanded integration of the public school systems.8 These two themes persisted in later years.
|
From page 32... ...
Parents and education researchers alike began to raise questions about the quality of special education classes and even the validity of the special education system itself. In part a reflection of broader social concerns such as the civil rights movement, much of the public debate centered on the appropriateness of placing poor and minority children in special classes for mildly mentally retarded students (Dunn, 1968~.
|
From page 33... ...
Previously segregated white school districts, faced with including large numbers of minority students in their schools, often implemented practices designed to exclude blacks and other minorities. One device to screen out minority students, which relied heavily on intelligence tests, may have been special education, especially classes for mildly mentally retarded students.
|
From page 34... ...
. In 1972 a group of black children in EMR classes in the San Prancisco school system sued the district and the state, again challenging the use of standardized intelligence tests as a placement tool for minority children.
|
From page 35... ...
this "mainstreaming" movement for handicapped children gained legal endorsement. In that case, plaintiffs argued that mentally retarded children in state institutions were excluded from public schools without due process.
|
From page 36... ...
under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." The final regulations implementing this legislation were published in 1977, requiring that a free, appropriate, public education must be given to every handicapped child. Specific requirements are stated for the evaluation and placement process to prevent misclassification, unnecessary labeling, and inappropriate placement.
|
From page 37... ...
These regulations guarantee parents the right to review pertinent educational records; to obtain an independent evaluation of the child; to receive written notice before a public agency initiates the placement process, including a full explanation of procedural safeguards available to the parent; and to demand a hearing before an impartial officer if the placement is challenged.
|
From page 38... ...
CURRENT PROCEDURES IN EDUCATIONAL PLACEMENT A DESCRIPTION OF THF: PLACEMENT PROCESS The intricate system of checks and balances mandated by Section 504 and P.L. 94-142 and their implementing regulations, the emphasis on decision making by multidisciplinary teams, the requirements of multiple tests and other assessment procedures, and the thrust toward placement in the least restrictive environment appear quite compatible in spirit with models of the placement process proposed by various educators (e.g., Jones, 1979; Oakland, 1977~.
|
From page 39... ...
Although a variety of data are collected on each student, members of the team still rely heavily on IQ scores and achievement measures as a basis for labeling a child as mentally retarded (Poland et al., 1979; Thouvenelle and Hebbeler, 1978~. Once a child has been evaluated as belonging to the EMR category, decisions must be made concerning his or her placement and method of instruction.
|
From page 40... ...
One such cause of diversity, mentioned previously, is that the definition of educable mental retardation varies among states (see, for example, U.S. General Accounting Office, 1981~.
|
From page 41... ...
Disproportionate representation of minorites in EMR classes could well arise from racial discrimination on the part of individual decision makers in the placement process, a possibility that could only be checked by monitoring a district on a case-by-case basis. THE EFFECTS OF THE PLACEMENT PROCESS ON MINORITY STUDENTS In what ways does the placement process affect minority and white students differentially?
|
From page 42... ...
The balance that is struck between IQ and other measures is likely to have significant consequences for the proportion of minority children placed in EMR classes, since minority children consistently score lower on standardized tests of ability than do white children. For blacks the typical estimate of average IQ across the nation is 85, about one standard deviation below the white mean of 100.
|
From page 43... ...
Available research suggests that the use of such information, particularly information on adaptive behavior outside school, dramatically reduces the proportion of all children placed in EMR classes, although there is a greater reduction for minority students (Fischer, 1977; Reschly, 19791. Additional information often available in the child's placement dossier may include the child's race, socioeconomic status, family situation, and classroom deportment.
|
From page 44... ...
P.L. 94-142 regulations guarantee parents access to full information, prior approval of evaluation activities, participation in placement decisions and the writing of IEPs, and the right to appeal unsatisfactory decisions and to demand independent evaluation of the child.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.