Children of Immigrants Health, Adjustment, and Public Assistance (1999) / Chapter Skim
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9 Passages to Adulthood: The Adaptation on Children of Immigrants in Southern California
9 Passages to Adulthood: The Adaptation on Children of Immigrants in Southern California
Pages 478-545
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From page 478... ...
The size of this youthful population including both immigrant children and U.S.-born children of immigrants has already surpassed the prior record set by the offspring of European immigrants earlier in this century. Among children under 18 years of age, the 1990 census counted nearly 6 million U.S.-born children living with immigrant parents and another 2 million foreign-born children ages 0 to 17, combining to form a "new second generation" of some 8 million children as of that time (see Oropesa and Landale, 1997~.
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From page 479... ...
The sample was drawn in the junior high grades, a level at which dropout rates are still relatively rare, to avoid the potential bias of differential dropout rates between ethnic groups at the senior high school level. For purposes of the study, students were eligible to enter the sample if they were U.S.
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From page 480... ...
among youth in the San Diego longitudinal sample and also on two key indices of psychological well-being: self-esteem and depression. IMMIGRANTS AND THEIR TYPES: THE SAN DIEGO LONGITUDINAL SAMPLE Reflecting patterns of recent immigration into Southern California, the principal nationalities represented in the San Diego sample are Mexican, Filipino, Vietnamese, Laotian, Cambodian, and smaller groups of other children of Asian immigrants (mostly Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Korean)
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From page 481... ...
And fully 90 percent of this study's San Diego sample consisted of children of parents from Mexico; the Philippines; and Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia representing distinct groups of immigrant laborers, professionals, and refugees with sharply contrasting migration histories and contexts of exit and reception. The 1995-1996 survey in San Diego succeeded in reinterviewing 85.2 percent of the baseline sample of 2,420 students, for a total of 2,063 (see Table 9-1 for reinterview rates by national origin and gender)
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From page 482... ...
and again in 1995-1996 (Tat. When originally interviewed in spring 1992, all respondents were enrolled in the eighth or ninth grades in the San Diego City Schools; eligible respondents had to have at least one parent who was foreign born.
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From page 483... ...
, the mother's nationality determined the child's national origin classification, except where the mother was U.S. born.
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From page 484... ...
The percentages of female and foreign-born youth were the same at both points in time. As during the baseline survey, this data collection effort for the most part took place during repeated visits to schools with the cooperation of the San Diego City Schools, including administrators, principals, teachers, and other staff.
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From page 485... ...
to the end (T2) of high school as sketched in the tables of data that follow cover their family's economic situation, school achievement and effort, educational and occupational aspirations, language proficiency and preference, ethnic self-identities, perceptions of discrimination, and global self-esteem and depressive symptoms.
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From page 486... ...
and 1995 (T2) Characteristics by Mexico Philippine National Origin and Nativitya TimeFBa US FB Socioeconomic Status Father % College graduate T17.1 6.5 37.0 % Less than high school T176.3 59.9 16.4 % In the labor force T179.9 81.4 86.2 % In the labor force T274.1 78.2 81.0 Mother % College graduate T12.7 4.5 37.9 % Less than high school T182.6 66.9 22.5 % In the labor force T158.0 55.4 84.2 % In the labor force T263.4 66.1 84.9 Home % Family owns home T118.3 44.1 65.3 % Family owns home T227.5 52.8 74.2 % Moved to new home T252.7 32.0 37.9 Family's Economic Situation (since 3 yrs.
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From page 487... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT ,teristics (T2)
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From page 488... ...
% Below poverty line T1 51.2 44.4 29.8 % Foreign born T1 34.0 34.7 21.1 % White T1 34.3 50.2 65.7 % Speak English only T1 48.8 51.5 70.3 aFB = foreign-born children; US = U.S.-born children. bNo separate columns for U.S.-born youths from Cambodia and Laos are included because there were only a handful of such cases in the sample.
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From page 489... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT 489 Imong b All Others Total FB US FB US Total 35.2 31.8 76.1 79.5 25.0 35.2 64.8 68.2 44.3 54.0 47.7 39.8 12.2 83.7 91.8 24.5 18.4 76.3 85.7 80.6 81.6 20.4 18.1 53.7 62.3 74.5 14.7 60.5 51.5 55.0 34.8 41.1 44.9 19.3 33.6 81.1 83.8 24.9 38.8 74.0 79.0 68.0 72.7 27.8 18.7 44.8 70.6 73.0 19.2 50.9 61.5 65.6 49.5 55.1 37.3 52.3 56.1 55.8 52.1 54.1 11.6 14.3 8.4 11.0 9.6 45.5 30.6 41.8 38.2 40.2 19.3 15.3 14.3 18.8 16.3 29.8 21.1 65.7 70.3 22.8 21.8 67.7 71.4 37.7 30.5 47.1 56.7 29.6 29.1 48.1 58.8 34.0 29.9 47.5 57.6
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From page 490... ...
These homes are located in neighborhoods that range from the poorest in San Diego (particularly for Mexican, Cambodian, and Laotian immigrant families) to upper-middle-class suburbs, as suggested by the 1990 census tract data in Table 9-2.
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From page 491... ...
Perceptions of downward mobility are significantly associated with depressive symptoms, as will be seen in a later section on psychological well-being outcomes.
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From page 492... ...
At both T1 and T2, family structure emerged as a key determinant of educational performance outcomes as well as of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. The presence of both natural parents at home is significantly and strongly associated with positive outcomes over time.
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From page 493... ...
An indication of the importance of such relationships was suggested in an earlier multivariate analysis of cross-sectional results at T1 (Rumbaut, 1994a) , which found that our measure of parent-child conflict emerged as the single strongest determinant much more so than an intact family structure of both self-esteem and depression.
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From page 494... ...
and 1995 (T2) Characteristics by Mexico Philippin National Origin and Nativitya Time FBa US FB Family-Household Family-household size T1 5.1 4.5 4.8 T2 4.5 4.1 4.4 % Intact family (both T1 62.1 65.5 75.9 natural parents at home)
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From page 495... ...
One key question was whether the level of attainment exhibited by these children of immigrants matched, exceeded, or fell below the average for grades 9 through 12 for the San Diego school district overall (the nation's eighth largest)
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From page 496... ...
. The three-item familism dropout rates is possible, since the school system is the same source of information for both measures and both populations.
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From page 497... ...
, compared to a much higher 44 percent of the ninth graders from immigrant families; and while 36 percent of ninth graders districtwide had low GPAs under 2.0 (less than a C on average) , only half as many (18 percent)
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From page 498... ...
The multiyear dropout rate for students in grades 9 through 12 in the San Diego schools in 1994 was 16.2 percent, nearly triple the rate of 5.7 percent for the entire original sample of children of immigrants that is, of the 2,420 students who were originally interviewed in 1992 in the eighth and ninth grades, only 5.7 percent were officially determined to have dropped out of school at any point by 1996. That dropout rate is significantly lower than the dropout rates for preponderantly native non-Hispanic white (10.5 percent)
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From page 499... ...
That cIassification is supported by nationally standardized ASAT (Abbreviated Stanford Achievement Test) scores measuring English reading skills: the sample as a whole scored just below the fortieth percentile nationally, and the foreign-born groups with the highest proportion of LEP students scored in the bottom quartile nationally.
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From page 500... ...
and 1995 (T2) Characteristics by Mexico Philippine National Origin and Nativitya Time FBa US FB School Performance Academic GPAb T1 2.37 2.25 3.02 T2 2.32 2.31 2.86 Reading: national percentiles T1 22.3 29.0 50.2 Math: national percentiles T1 28.5 33.5 57.9 % Classified as LEPe T1 62.5 26.8 13.8 % Classified as giftedf T1 4.9 6.5 19.3 % Dropped out since T19 T2 5.4 6.5 2.3 % Suspended since T1 h T2 22.8 24.3 Homework and TV Homework hours daily T1 1.73 1.66 2.57 T2 2.05 1.88 2.79 TV-watching hours daily T1 2.80 3.02 3.21 T2 2.20 2.39 2.51 School Contexts School Safety (% agree)
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From page 501... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT of ilclren 501 Vietnam Cambodiab Philippines FB US FB US FB >.25 >.31 3.0 3.5 i.8 i.5 i.5 t.3 1.66 1.88 3.02 2.39 3.02 2.86 50.2 57.9 13.8 19.3 2.3 11.9 2.57 2.79 3.21 2.51 56.6 46.6 55.3 23.8 48.2 24.4 21.6 15.8 85.9 83.0 74.9 78.1 2.98 2.95 54.0 62.3 0.5 24.4 2.7 12.1 2.33 2.61 3.09 2.37 53.1 44.0 54.3 22.5 41.7 31.3 17.6 9.7 88.6 82.5 72.5 73.3 3.05 3.05 33.3 57.4 45.1 11.8 3.1 21.2 2.55 2.89 2.64 2.18 51.0 54.9 58.8 21.7 45.1 13.3 16.1 17.6 85.4 77.4 70.6 72.3 3.21 3.14 63.4 70.6 4.3 38.3 2.1 10.6 2.58 2.89 2.41 2.20 46.8 66.0 46.8 25.5 55.3 36.2 23.4 10.9 85.1 78.7 66.0 74.5 2.75 2.58 14.0 35.8 70.1 1.1 3.4 17.0 2.27 2.44 2.72 2.26 60.2 67.0 54.0 25.0 42.0 10.2 21.6 17.0 86.4 85.2 71.6 70.1 continued on next page
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From page 502... ...
CNational percentile rank based on the English reading vocabulary and comprehension subtest of the Abbreviated Stanford Achievement Test (ASAT)
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From page 503... ...
Most (nearly 80%) of the suspensions in the San Diego school district are meted out for physical injury (fights, threats, attempts)
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From page 504... ...
to T2 (2.77~. In multivariate analyses at T1 the number of daily homework hours emerged as the strongest single predictor of higher GPAs, while the number of hours spent watching television daily was significantly associated with lower GPAs (see Rumbaut, 1995, 1997b)
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From page 505... ...
Overall, low-conflict intact families exhibit the best outcomes across the board, while high-conflict nonintact families fare the worst in high dropout and school suspension rates, although high-conflict families regardless of type of parental structure yield equally poor GPAs, self-esteem, and depression scores. The quality of familial relationships, even more than family structure, has very significant effects on school performance.
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From page 506... ...
As will be detailed below, it turns out that these indices of contextual factors had significant effects in multivariate analyses of self-esteem and depressive symptoms at T2. Patterns of Ambition: Educational and Occupational Aspirations and Values Children of immigrants are ambitious and their goals both their aspirations and their expectations remain stable over time, as evidenced by the results shown in Table 9-5.
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From page 507... ...
The least ambitious expectations are seen among the Mexicans, Cambodians, and Laotianswho are also the groups whose expectations decreased over time. Thus, there are major differences in aspirations by family socioeconomic status, and this gap appears to widen over time.
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From page 508... ...
and 1995 (T2) Characteristics by Mexico Philippine National Origin and Nativitya Time FBa US FB Educational Aspirations % Advanced degree T1 53.8 48.4 75.8 T2 48.7 47.5 72.7 % College degree T1 22.0 28.9 19.4 T2 26.3 31.6 21.9 % Less than college T1 24.2 22.7 4.8 T2 25.0 20.9 5.5 Educational Expectations % Advanced degree T1 33.0 28.0 40.8 T2 25.9 23.2 46.9 %College degree T1 30.4 35.6 42.4 T2 31.3 44.4 38.6 % Less than college T1 36.6 36.4 16.7 T2 42.9 32.5 14.5 Parents' AspirationsC % Advanced degree T2 57.1 47.2 65.3 %College degree T2 27.2 36.7 31.2 % Less than college T2 15.6 16.1 3.5 Occupational Aspiration' % Upper-level T1 61.2 63.6 74.9 white-collar job T2 66.1 59.6 82.0 Plans of Most Friends % Dropped out of school T2 6.7 8.3 1.9 % No college plans T2 11.4 11.6 4.8 % Get a job after high school T2 33.5 32.2 32.2 % Go to 2-year college T2 25.9 24.9 31.4 % Go to 4-year university T2 26.2 26.7 50.5
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From page 510... ...
510 TABLE 9-5 Continuecl CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANTS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Laos Characteristics by Laob Hmongb All Other. National Origin and Nativitya Time FB FB FB Educational Aspirations % Advanced degree T1 42.9 40.0 65.9 T2 50.3 54.0 68.2 %College degree T1 32.1 26.0 28.4 T2 28.7 30.0 23.9 % Less than college T1 25.0 34.0 5.7 T2 21.0 16.0 8.0 Educational Expectations % Advanced degree T1 20.3 12.0 50.0 T2 21.7 6.0 56.8 %College degree T1 33.6 30.0 35.2 T2 47.6 62.0 30.7 % Less than college T1 46.2 58.0 14.8 T2 30.8 32.0 12.5 Parents' AspirationsC % Advanced degree T2 56.6 48.0 64.8 %College degree T2 28.7 36.0 31.8 % Less than college T2 14.7 16.0 3.4 Occupational Aspiration' % Upper-level T1 62.9 50.0 70.5 white-collar job T2 73.4 58.0 78.4 Plans of Most Friends % Dropped out of school T2 3.5 4.0 6.9 % No college plans T2 6.4 4.0 8.0 % Get a job after high school T2 25.4 16.0 16.1 % Go to 2-year college T2 24.6 30.0 20.7 % Go to 4-year university T2 42.3 36.0 51.7 aFB = foreign-born children; US = U.S.-born children.
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From page 511... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT 511 Songs AllOthers Total FB US FB US Total 65.9 68.2 28.4 23.9 5.7 8.0 50.0 56.8 35.2 30.7 14.8 12.5 64.8 31.8 3.4 70.5 78.4 6.9 8.0 16.1 20.7 51.7 75.3 72.2 23.7 21.6 1.0 6.2 49.0 61.2 42.9 26.5 8.2 12.2 66.3 32.7 1.0 76.5 76.5 3.1 6.1 17.5 11.3 55.1 59.0 60.7 26.4 25.9 14.6 13.4 34.2 36.8 37.2 39.2 28.6 24.0 60.5 29.7 9.8 67.2 74.8 4.0 7.0 25.6 26.4 43.6 63.6 62.5 25.1 25.7 11.3 11.8 36.6 37.5 40.2 42.1 23.2 20.4 58.5 33.1 8.4 73.4 73.3 4.3 7.7 27.2 24.4 43.2 61.1 61.5 25.8 25.8 13.1 12.7 35.3 37.1 38.5 40.5 26.2 22.4 59.6 31.2 9.2 70.0 74.2 4.1 7.3 26.3 25.5 43.4
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From page 512... ...
from junior high to the end of senior high, while such aspirations increased for foreignborn youth from two-thirds of them at T1 to three-fourths at T2. In general, as in the case with educational aspirations, the stability and resilience of these occupational aspirations over time is underscored by these latest data.
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From page 513... ...
But as seen in Table 9-6, at T1 two-thirds of the total sample (66 percent) already preferred to speak English instead of their parents' native tongue, including 56 percent of the foreign-born youth and 78 percent of the U.S.-born youth.
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From page 514... ...
and 98 percent of those born in the United States preferred English by T2. But even among the most mother-tongue-retentive group the Mexican-origin youth living in a Spanish-named city on the Mexican border with a large Spanish-speaking immigrant population and a wide range of Spanish-language radio and television stations the force of linguistic assimilation was incontrovertible: while at T1 only a third (32 percent)
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From page 515... ...
The data in Table 9-6 and Figure 9-3 vividly underscore the rapidity with which English triumphs and foreign languages atrophy in the United States even in San Diego, with the busiest international border crossing in the world as the second generation not only comes to speak, read, and write it fluently but prefers it overwhelmingly to their parents' native tongue. This linear pattern of rapid linguistic assimilation is constant across nationalities and socioeconomic levels and suggests that, over time, the use of and fluency in foreign languages will inevitably decline results that directly rebut nativist alarms about the perpetuation of foreign-language enclaves in immigrant commu
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From page 516... ...
and 1995 (T2) Characteristics by Mexico Philippin, National Origin and Nativitya Time FBa US FB English Language % Prefers English T1 32.1 52.8 81.4 T2 62.5 78.2 92.6 % Speaks it "very well" T1 38.5 74.1 75.2 T2 48.2 77.7 83.3 Non-English Language % Speaks it "very well" T1 74.0 44.8 23.2 T2 78.1 49.9 23.0 Ethnic Self-ldentityt %"American" T1 0.0 2.8 0.3 T2 0.0 2.0 1.0 % Hyphenated American T1 14.7 40.4 50.8 T2 12.1 39.3 21.9 % National origin T1 33.5 8.2 41.8 T2 67.9 26.3 72.7 % Racial/pan-ethnic T1 51.3 44.9 3.5 T2 18.8 27.7 0.6 % Mixedethnicity,other T1 0.4 3.7 3.5 T2 1.3 4.8 3.9 Ethnic Identity SalienceC "How important is this identity to you?
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From page 517... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT entity f the (T2)
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From page 518... ...
" "Hispanic," "Chicano," "Latino," "Black," and "Asian" are classified as racial or pan-ethnic identities; a "Hmong" ethnic identity is included under "national origin"; "CubanMexican" or "Chinese-Thai" are under "mixed" identities.
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From page 519... ...
78.4 89.8 86.2 87.0 20.3 25.7 5.8 2.7 53.0 42.4 15.7 32.3 19.8 16.8 5.7 5.7 63.6 26.2 10.2 66.0 82.0 67.3 71.2 33.1 36.3 3.3 1.6 43.4 30.1 31.6 48.1 16.1 16.2 5.5 4.0 65.5 24.6 9.8 CA follow-up question asked "How important is this identity to you, that is, what you call yourself? " The highest salience scores were found among those identifying by national origin; the lowest were among those identifying as "American"; in between were the salience scores for hyphenated American and racial/pan-ethnic identities.
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From page 520... ...
~ T2 (1995) Mexican Filipino Vietnamese Cambodian Lao Hmong Others FIGURE 9-3 Percentages who preferred English, at T1 and T2, San Diego children of immigrants sample, by (top)
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From page 521... ...
; conversely, U.S.-born youth were much more likely to identify as "American" or hyphenated American than were the foreign born and somewhat more likely to identify in pan-ethnic terms. Those findings at T1 seemed suggestive of an assimilative trend from one generation to another.
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From page 522... ...
and hyphenated American (dropping from 43 to 30 percent) self-identities points to the rapid growth of a reactive ethnic consciousness.
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From page 523... ...
Such expectations of external discrimination on ascribed rather than achieved grounds and thus of perceived danger and threatening circumstances beyond one's control were found in a multivariate analysis of the original survey data to be significant predictors of depressive symptomatology (see Rumbaut, 1994a)
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From page 524... ...
Even more tellingly, 63 percent of these youth agreed in the original survey that "there is no better country to live in than the United States," and that endorsement grew to 71 percent three years later. Majorities of every nationality, regardless of whether they were foreign born or U.S.
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From page 525... ...
, suggesting that considerable change occurs over time in the psychological dimensions of well-being tapped by these measures, particularly with regard to depressive symptoms. Table 9-7 sketches a detailed picture of self-esteem and depression scores at T1 and T2, broken down by gender for a wide range of hypothesized predictors: national origin, nativity, age at arrival, citizenship, socioeconomic status, family structure and parent-child conflict, English proficiency and preference, aspirations, ethnic self-identity, and experiences and expectations of discrimination.
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From page 526... ...
* Foreign born 3.16 3.29 3.11 3.21 3.13 3.25 U.S.
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From page 527... ...
* Advanced degree 3.34 3.51 3.30 3.37 3.32 3.43 College degree 3.27 3.30 3.11 3.24 3.20 3.27 Less than college degree 3.08 3.14 3.00 3.05 3.05 3.11 Occupational Aspirations *
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From page 529... ...
* Better than 3 years ago 1.51 1.49 1.73 1.76 1.62 1.62 Same as 3 years ago 1.52 1.58 1.74 1.75 1.64 1.67 Worse than 3 years ago 1.83 1.81 1.85 1.94 1.84 1.88 Family Structure *
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From page 530... ...
* NS Advanced degree 1.48 1.50 1.68 1.77 1.60 1.66 College degree 1.51 1.57 1.79 1.80 1.64 1.68 Less than college degree 1.63 1.66 1.84 1.83 1.72 1.73 Occupational Aspirations NS NS High-status profession 1.53 1.58 1.75 1.77 1.65 1.68 Middle-status job 1.52 1.52 1.70 1.89 1.60 1.68 Low-status job 1.57 1.57 2.00 1.90 1.66 1.68 Ethnic Self-ldentity *
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From page 531... ...
bAII variables as measured at T1 and T2, reflecting changes over time, except constants such as gender, national origin, generation, age at arrival, parents' education, and parents' ethnicity; that is, psychological well-being outcomes at T1 reported in this table are associated with predictor variables (such as family structure and English proficiency) measured at T1 and T2 outcomes with variables measured at T2.
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From page 532... ...
First, as had been found earlier in multiple regressions with the T1 data, gender remains one of the most significant predictors of both well-being measures even after controlling for a score of other variables. Significantly lower self-esteem and much higher levels of depressive symptoms are observed for females in this sample; and the effect for self-esteem is considerably reduced after the entry of the last set of variables (concern with physical
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From page 533... ...
Second, intrafamily factors have very significant effects on both dependent variables, particularly the measure of parentchild conflict, which, as in T1, emerges as one of the principal predictors of emotional well-being in these populations. By contrast, family structure washes out of the self-esteem equation and retains a weak though still significant protective effect against depressive symptoms.
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From page 534... ...
* -0.050 Family economic situation worse NS 0.055 Family moved to another home 0.068(3.97)
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From page 535... ...
It is an index of both length of residence in the United States and, if foreign born, age/developmental stage at arrival in the United States.
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From page 536... ...
The third set of predictor variables begins to show more significant divergences among the determinants of the two well-being outcome variables. Four of the predictors in that set wash out of the self-esteem equation but retain significant net effects on depressive symptoms notably expectations of discrimination (underscoring the point made earlier)
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From page 537... ...
And among national origin groups, the most dissatisfied with their physical looks were the Vietnamese and Filipinos, with the Vietnamese also being the most likely to report not feeling popular with the opposite sex. In all of these respects it becomes clear that self-esteem and depressive symptoms are measures of different cognitive and affective dimensions of psychological well-being, subject to a different set of determinants, which throw additional light on the adaptational challenges that children of immigrants confront in their passages to adulthood in American contexts.
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From page 538... ...
The study was conceived and conducted in collaboration with Alejandro Portes and carried out in conjunction with a parallel survey in South Florida directed by Professor Portes and funded by additional grants from the Spencer, Russell Sage, and National Science foundations. The project in the San Diego area, which I directed, was made possible by the generous cooperation of over 2,000 immigrant families and scores of administrators, principals, teachers, and other staff members of the San Diego City Schools; by the assistance extended by the sociology departments of San Diego State University and Michigan State University; by the work of a team of over two dozen interviewers fluent in Spanish, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Lao, Hmong, and other languages representative of the immigrant families that have made San Diego their home; and by the extraordinary commitment of my core research staff, especially Linda Borgen, Norm Borgen, Kevin Keogan, Laura Lagunas, and lames Ainsworth.
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From page 539... ...
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 1997a Ties that bind: Immigration and immigrant families in the United States.
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From page 540... ...
Zhou, M 1997 Growing up American: The challenge confronting immigrant children and children of immigrants.
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From page 542... ...
I did not I could n I felt dep I felt sad 1 = Rarel 3 = 0cca Familism scale 0.60 0.62 One shot (three items: scored 1 to 4) When so In helpin 1 = Disat Family cohesion scale 0.84 Family m (three items: scored 1 to 5)
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From page 543... ...
RUBEN G RUMBAUT oring of 543 Items and Measures I feel I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with others.
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From page 544... ...
544 TABLE 9A-1 Continuecl CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANTS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Cronbach's Alpha Scale and Scoring T1 T2 Items an Educational aspirations 0.80 0.83 What is (two items: scored 1 to 5) And real' 1 = Less 5 = Finisl English proficiency index (four items: scored 1 to 4)
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From page 545... ...
[foreign languages]
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