The Future Role of Pesticides in US Agriculture (2000) / Chapter Skim
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2 Benefits, Costs, and Contemporary Use Patterns
2 Benefits, Costs, and Contemporary Use Patterns
Pages 33-101
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From page 33... ...
From the time when synthetic pesticides were developed after World War II, there have been major increases in agricultural productivity accompanied by an increase in efficiency, with fewer farmers on fewer farms producing more food for more people (Figure 2-1) (Rasmussen et al.
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From page 34... ...
has been changes in planting practices facilitated by the availability of effective herbicides. Historically, for example, corn was planted in hills of three or more plants and, in many cases, in check rows, which allowed farmers to cultivate the corn in two directions for weed control.
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From page 35... ...
When Anthonomus grandis, the boll weevil, crossed the Rio Grande in 1892, it rapidly spread through the lower Southeast and drove major cotton production out of many states. With the advent of synthetic organic insecticides, farmers were able to return previously infested areas to cotton cultivation.
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From page 36... ...
A survey conducted by the Weed Science Society of America (Bridges and Anderson, 1992) estimated that the total US crop loss due to weeds is about $4 billion a year.
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From page 37... ...
Thus, even if aesthetic and health benefits are difficult to quantify, they still are expected to be offset by very low risk factors for chemical agents currently in use. On tune 8, 2000, US EPA revised their risk assessment for this compound based on the mandates of the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA)
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From page 38... ...
Those crops account for about 80% of both planted crop acreage and sales of agricultural products and can thus be taken as broadly representative of US agriculture (USDA, 1996~. Data on pesticide use include amounts of active ingredients applied and shares of acreage treated in toto and by major category (ERS, 1997~.
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From page 39... ...
Among row crops, only in cotton, tobacco and potato are fungicides used regularly; less than 10% of cotton acreage is typically treated with fungicides. The category "other pesticides" includes defoliants, growth regulators, and soil fumigants, which are used widely on cotton and potatoes.
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From page 40... ...
For example, a 1992 survey showed that pesticide use in Missouri grain crops had decreased by 6% since 1975 while the total quantity of herbicide and insecticide active ingredients had decreased by 38%; the decrease in herbicide use by Missouri corn and soybean farmers from 1984 to 1992 amounted to 3 million pounds. Those decreases were attributable to the availability of more effective herbicides with lower application rates (NAPIAP, 1997~.
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From page 41... ...
For example, pesticide use in cotton has increased due largely to the resurgence of cotton production in the southeastern United States, which is itself attributable to the success of the boll weevil eradication program administered by USDA (Carlson et al., 1989~. Those trends suggest that differences in the intensity of pesticide use among crops appear to have become greater over time, mainly because of increases in the use of fungicides, such other pesticides as soil fumigants, and growth regulators.
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From page 42... ...
42 THE FUTURE ROLE OF PESTICIDES IN US AGRICULTURE TABLE 2-2 Pounds of Pesticide Active Ingredient per Planted Acre in Major US crops, 1990-1997 1964 1966 1971 1976 1982 1990 1991 Crop Herbicides Corn 0.387 0.693 1.362 2.454 2.974 2.932 2.767 Cotton 0.312 0.631 1.587 1.571 1.829 1.710 1.850 Wheat 0.165 0.152 0.216 0.273 0.226 0.215 0.195 Soybeans 0.133 0.279 0.840 1.614 1.880 12.870 1.181 Potatoes 0.989 1.482 1.521 1.254 1.256 1.687 1.777 Other vegetables 0.670 1.005 1.061 1.696 1.984 1.735 1.700 Citrus 0.265 0.397 0.457 3.970 5.556 6.635 7.176 Apples 0.617 0.924 0.389 1.427 1.548 0.815 0.823 Crop Insecticides Corn 0.238 0.356 0.344 0.379 0.368 0.313 0.303 Cotton 5.259 9.271 5.937 5.503 1.692 1.100 0.584 Wheat 0.016 0.016 0.032 0.090 0.033 0.013 0.003 Soybeans 0.158 0.086 0.129 0.157 0.164 0.000 0.007 Potatoes 1.111 1.984 1.934 2.318 2.898 2.566 2.559 Other vegetables 2.532 2.352 2.610 1.775 2.039 1.662 1.627 Citrus 1.825 3.213 2.554 3.843 4.687 4.678 4.706 Apples 23.993 20.185 12.011 8.960 7.898 8.220 8.230 Crop Fungicides Corn 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 000 0 000 0 000 Cotton 0.012 0.036 0.018 0.004 0.018 0.080 0.050 Wheat 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.011 0.013 0.002 0.001 Soybeans 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.001 0.000 0.000 Potatoes 2.463 2.357 2.880 2.962 3.094 2.006 2.274 Other vegetables 1.384 1.179 1.789 1.581 3.056 4.553 4.738 Citrus 6.314 4.559 7.754 4.922 4.312 3.950 4.235 Apples 17.173 20.190 17.919 16.093 13.512 9.778 9.259 Crop Other pesticidesa Corn 0.001 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.002 0.000 0.000 Cotton 0.838 1.373 1.513 1.088 0.824 1.230 1.103 Wheat 0.000 0.001 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Soybeans 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.040 0.034 0.000 0.000 Potatoes 0.069 0.006 4.467 6.095 11.658 25.055 18.621 Other vegetables 1.777 0.164 1.084 1.584 2.834 6.100 6.510 Citrus 1.971 0.766 1.072 0.179 0.006 0.016 a Apples 2.298 2.564 1.363 1.424 1.003 0.104 0.206
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From page 43... ...
BENEFITS, COSTS, AND CONTEMPORARY USE PATTERNS cre In 43 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 2.932 2.767 2.829 2.758 2.723 2.615 2.661 2.640 1.710 1.850 1.949 1.756 2.085 1.943 1.893 2.115 0.215 0.195 0.241 0.254 0.294 0.289 0.403 0.342 12.870 1.181 1.139 1.066 1.124 1.088 1.212 1.181 1.687 1.777 1.643 1.805 2.048 2.074 1.992 1.762 1.735 1.700 1.658 1.671 1.681 1.909 2.126 2.127 6.635 7.176 6.208 5.385 4.908 4.455 4.170 3.913 0.815 0.823 0.883 0.868 1.307 1.739 1.735 1.987 0.313 0.303 0.264 0.253 0.219 0.211 0.202 0.218 1.100 0.584 1.156 1.146 1.742 1.772 1.278 1.398 0.013 0.003 0.017 0.003 0.028 0.013 0.030 0.017 0.000 0.007 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.008 0.006 0.011 2.566 2.559 2.614 2.816 3.107 2.217 1.717 2.423 1.662 4.678 8.220 1.627 4.706 8.230 1.572 5.079 8.609 1.554 5.597 8.894 1.545 5.215 8.279 1.511 4.929 7.609 1.491 4.805 7.375 1.503 4.783 7.285 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.080 0.050 0.060 0.052 0.080 0.059 0.034 0.065 0.002 0.001 0.017 0.010 0.014 0.007 0.003 0.001 0OOO 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 o.ooo o.ooo o.ooo 2.006 2.274 2.689 3.177 4.449 5.722 4.945 7.930 4.553 4.738 4.946 5.482 6.045 6.469 6.902 6.920 3.950 4.235 3.837 3.485 3.681 3.791 3.626 3.478 9.778 9.259 9.713 9.978 10.022 10.000 11.497 13.245 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.230 1.103 1.193 0.945 1.137 1.163 1.278 1.340 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 25.055 18.621 24.122 28.664 35.734 27.969 25.343 30.837 6.100 6.510 6.918 8.062 9.217 10.764 12.341 12.337 0.016 a a a 0.102 0.200 0.600 1.100 0.104 0.206 0.221 0.217 0.218 0.217 0.217 0.221 Table continued on next page
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From page 44... ...
In general, pesticide productivity will tend to be low in situations where substitution possibilities are large. For example, the United States has a great deal of land suitable for growing grain and oilseed crops.
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From page 45... ...
Pesticide productivity has been estimated in three general ways: with partial-budget models based on agronomic projections, with combinations of budget and market models, and with econometric models. Partial-Budget Models Partial-budget models estimate productivity effects of changes in pesticide use by constructing alternative production scenarios.
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From page 47... ...
Current prices are then used to value changes in per-acre production costs and per-acre yield losses, which are added to obtain an estimate of the costs of changes in pesticide use. Pimentel and associates compile estimates of crop losses due to insects, diseases, and weeds crop by crop.
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Moreover, they are often conducted in areas with heavier than normal pest pressure, where pesticide productivity is probably higher (Pimentel et al.
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(1991) findings indicate that the potential for substitution in fruit and vegetable crops is more limited than found in other crop production systems, so pesticide productivity is higher for these crops.
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Economists believe that in most circumstances (including agriculture) marginal productivity is falling at actual input usage levels; this implies that marginal productivity is less than average productivity.
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There are several reasons to believe that Headley's estimate of marginal pesticide productivity could be too high. First, using sales as a measure of output tends to bias productivity estimates upward because output price tends to be positively correlated with input demand.
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From page 52... ...
Finally, estimated crop losses with zero pesticide use ranged from 17% to 20%. Quality, Storage, and Risk Reducing crop loss is the primary motivation for pesticide use, but pesticides also render other important services in agricultural production: enhancing product quality, prolonging storage life, and reducing production and income risk.
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From page 53... ...
Some consumer surveys also indicate unwillingness to purchase produce that has cosmetic defects or insect damage (see, for example, Ott 1990~. Studies of pesticide productivity, such as those discussed previously, ignore quality considerations and thus understate benefits of pesticide use.
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From page 54... ...
chance that pest pressure will be large enough to cause appreciable damage. That line of reasoning suggests that such applications could be eliminated at little or no cost in increased crop losses or reduced crop quality (van den Bosch and Stern 1962; Carlson and Main 1976; Norgaard 1976~.
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From page 55... ...
and simulation studies (Pannell 1991) show that pesticides tend to be risk-increasing when crop growth and pest pressure are positively correlated, as often occurs with weed and insect pressure in dryland farming.
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From page 56... ...
In 1986, the number was over 400 (Ku 1987~; and it now exceeds 500. Over 150 microbe species and 270 weed species are resistant to at least one chemical pesticide (Jacobsen 1997~.
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From page 57... ...
Thirty-eight weed species have evolved resistance to ALS inhibitors in cereal, corn and soybean, and rice production systems (Heap 1997~. Herbicide resistance is still relatively restricted and has been slower to develop than insecticide or fungicide resistance.
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From page 58... ...
as an exhaustible resource that is depleted gradually by pesticide application. In many cases, as resistance spreads, pesticide application rates rise while pesticide effectiveness falls, so that growers experience gradually increasing pest-control costs and gradually decreasing yields (Hueth and Regev 1974~.
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From page 59... ...
to 1993, real pesticide expenditures remained roughly constant (Figure 2-3) , while total factor productivity (output corrected for changes in input use)
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From page 60... ...
It also decreases the window of opportunity to sell generic versions of established pesticides once their patent protection has lapsed, thereby increasing the share of time that developers receive patent protection. Human Health Impacts Occupational Effects and Risks: an Overview Pesticides are designed to kill organisms that share many biochemical pathways and physiological processes with nontarget species in the agroecosystem, with domestic animals, and with humans.
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From page 61... ...
Exposures to pesticides in the general population tend to occur mainly through contact with residues in food or water but can also occur through accidental ingestion of seed prepared for sowing or through mistaken use of pesticides in food preparation because of their resemblance to food products. Occupational exposures to pesticides tend to occur mainly through dermal contact and inhalation.
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From page 62... ...
For these reasons, most of the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are no longer on the US market. Packaging, Distribution, and Application Risks The Secretary's Commission on Pesticides (HEW 1969)
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From page 63... ...
In one conspicuous case, in California in 1989, workers harvesting cauliflower in a field sprayed 20 hours earlier with two organophosphate insecticides and one carbamate insecticide became ill after about 1 hour of exposure; at the time, state laws specified a 72hour safety reentry interval (Ferrer and Cabral 1995~. However, occupational exposures can occur even when safety regulations are enforced.
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From page 64... ...
Special Focus: Health Risks of Farm Workers and EPA Worker Protection Standards The impact of pesticides on the short- and long-term health of the agricultural workforce is poorly documented (Alavanja et al. 1996, Sanderson et al.
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From page 65... ...
Nonetheless, the Agricultural Health Study is likely to produce important findings. Some data exist on rates of acute, accidental pesticide poisonings, but problems with bias in reporting make it hard to estimate the true frequency of accidental poisonings (Arne 1997, Blondell, 1997~.
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From page 66... ...
"Assuming that the majority of the current acute illnesses and injury incidents...are prevented through compliance with this new rule, there will be significant benefits to agricultural workers and pesticide handlers." In developing the new regulations, EPA indicated that the "minor use crops are the ones this Worker Protection Standard will impact the most. Much of agricultural labor is used in minor use crops, and it is in the production of these crops where the greatest chance of pesticide exposure to agricultural workers occurs." The rules in the 1992 Worker Protection Standard (WPS)
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From page 67... ...
Pesticide residues can occur in food as a result of treatment of a food crop or food animal with pesticides, of inadvertent contact with the chemical through exposure to air or water contaminated with the chemical, or in the case of food animals, of consumption of feed contaminated with the chemical. The amount of residue encountered in these situations is a complex function of such factors as the treatment rate or contact level, the physical and chemical properties of the pesticide, the time between exposure to the pesticide and harvest of the crop or food animal, and the processing or other treatment of the food commodity prior to its consumption as human food.
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From page 68... ...
USDA annually performs one of the most important surveys of fresh and processed fruit, grain, vegetables, and milk in the Pesticide Data Program as part of its efforts to meet the mandates of the FQPA. This effort includes collecting data on pesticide residues in foods most likely to be consumed by infants and children.
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From page 69... ...
The concentration of pesticide residues in foods and the frequency with which they occur have decreased substantially in recent years. Data on pesticide residues in foods are generally available from field trials conducted by the registrant, monitoring programs of FDA and state agencies, and marketbasket surveys of FDA and USDA.
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From page 70... ...
The FQPA (1996) poses even more challenges to industry to decrease risks from exposure to pesticide residues (FQPA 1996, McKenna and Cuneo 1996~.
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From page 71... ...
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From page 72... ...
A recent discussion of pesticides and non-pointsource pollution is presented in Loague et al., (1998~. The other major potential soil-water route of pesticide exposure of humans is consumption of contaminated groundwater.
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From page 73... ...
The initial paradigm for transport of chemicals in porous media was based on assumptions that the porous medium is homogeneous and that the rates of inter-phase mass transfer and reaction are linear and essentially instantaneous. However, it is well known that the subsurface is in fact heterogeneous, and that many phase transfers and transformation reactions are not linear or instantaneous.
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From page 74... ...
The human hazard might be most prominent for farm workers who apply chemicals or work in and around treated fields. But people who live, work, or play downwind can also be exposed.
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From page 75... ...
Generally, the dermal route of contact is much greater than the respiratory route in occupational exposures and those immediately downwind. But important exceptions occur for very volatile pesticides, particularly fumigants, such as methyl bromide, ethylene oxide, and telone (Ecobichon 1991~.
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From page 78... ...
Ecological Problems: Impacts on Nontarget Organisms The basic intent in the design of pesticides is to produce substances that are highly toxic to pest species, but much less toxic to the nonpest species so that there can be a useful margin of safety. The toxicity to each species is related to the characteristics of the substance and to the dose
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From page 79... ...
The degree of risk often correlates highly with the degree of resemblance to the target pest. There is ample documentation of the nontarget effects of the early chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides on nontarget insects; the phenomena of secondary pest problems and pest resurgence are attributable in large part to the greater toxicity of these insecticides to arthropod natural enemies than to arthropod target species.
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From page 80... ...
on over 400 chemicals suggest that sensitivity varies with species, age, and water temperature. Concerns also exist about nontarget effects on terrestrial vertebrates; indeed, food-chain effects culminating in reproductive failures in birds contributed substantially to raising public awareness and activism with respect to pesticide regulations (for example, Carson 1962~.
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From page 81... ...
Developing pesticides with specific modes of action has been given a high priority to reduce nontarget effects. Very high degrees of specificity in the control of some animal pests can be gained through such techniques as the use of specific pathogens, sterile-male techniques, and the use of species-specific pheromone blends, although the utility of these approaches depends on the availability of specific pathogens and the appropriateness of the mating habits of the pest species.
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From page 82... ...
Weed species shifts can result from intensive and consistent use of herbicides. In this case, herbicides cause local extinction of some weed species and thus leave an ecological niche for species that have greater tolerance of, can avoid, or are resistant to the herbicide.
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From page 83... ...
Numerous surveys conducted in 19841990 scattered across the United States showed that most Americans had serious concerns about pesticide residues on foods (Sachs et al. 1987; folly et al.
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From page 84... ...
The results indicated that in 1965 94% of the public felt that the "government adequately regulates chemical use in or on food." In 1984, only 48.9% of respondents agreed with that statement. Other measures of risk posed by pesticide residues also increased dramatically.
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From page 85... ...
In another study, which surveyed people visiting food stores that sold both organic and conventional produce, folly (1991) found that people who had purchased organic produce at least once in 3 months were willing to pay, on the average, an extra 37%, 40%, 61%, and 68%, respectively, for organic apples, broccoli, peaches, and carrots.
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From page 86... ...
Surveys of public opinion indicate that consumers are concerned about pesticide residue because of fear of cancer, but the public attitude toward pesticide residue is shaped by a much broader array of factors. Other health factors such as allergies and nervous system disorders, are of concern (van Ravenswaay 1995~; but a number of studies indicated that consumers who were concerned with pesticide residue associated it with environmental problems (Hammitt 1986, Higley and Wintersteen 1992~.
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From page 87... ...
Organic-food sales have risen far faster than total food sales, which were only a little over twice as large in nominal terms in 1996 as in 1980. Prices of organic produce average 2535% higher than prices of comparable conventional produce (Hammitt 1986, Morgan and Barbour 1991~; purchasers of organic foods seem willing to pay a substantial premium for them.
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From page 88... ...
· Environmental claims certified by a third party, such as a government agency, are stronger than claims of a grocer or manufacturer. · Consumers would not prefer to purchase products labeled "IPM" (integrated pest management)
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From page 89... ...
Thus, information from proponents of pesticide use chemical companies and food growers and distributors is perceived as less trustworthy. Another potential factor in public perception is the accessibility of the information provided from different sources and the accessibility of that information to a general public with little science education (Augustine 1998~.
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From page 90... ...
1993. Measuring food safety preferences: identifying consumer segments.
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From page 91... ...
1994. Simple econometrics of pesticide productivity.
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From page 92... ...
In press. Pesticide productivity and pest damage in the United States: an aggregate analysis.
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From page 93... ...
1989. Effect of commercial processing on pesticide residues in selected fruits and vegetables.
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From page 94... ...
1993. Infant Formulas: evidence of the absence of pesticide residues.
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From page 95... ...
1992. Public perceptions about food safety in the United States and Japan.
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From page 96... ...
1995. World food supply up to 2010 and the global pesticide situation.
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From page 97... ...
Sze, eds. Arlington, Va.: Methyl Bromide Global Coalition.
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From page 98... ...
1994. Crop Production and Crop Protection: Estimated Losses in Major Food and Cash Crops.
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From page 99... ...
van den Bosch.
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From page 100... ...
l991c. Contigent valuation and food safety: The case of pesticide residues in food.
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From page 101... ...
1994. Cancelling methyl bromide for postharvest use to trigger mixed economic results.
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