America Becoming Racial Trends and Their Consequences: Volume I (2001) / Chapter Skim
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3. An Overview of Racial and Ethnic Demographic Trends
3. An Overview of Racial and Ethnic Demographic Trends
Pages 40-102
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From page 40... ...
. To estimate marriage, fertility, and mortality rates, demographers use the national vital statistics records of births, marriages, and deaths.
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From page 41... ...
Another complication for analysis is the fact that Asians do not appear in vital statistics publications until recently. The 1870 Census included American Indians as a separate racial group.
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From page 42... ...
It is estimated that the 1990 Census missed 8.5 percent of Black males and 3.0 percent of Black females, compared to 2 percent of non-Black males and 0.6 percent of non-Black females (Robinson et al., 1993~. Other hard-toreach populations, such as American Indians on reservations, are undercounted as well.
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Recently, international migration and higher fertility rates among some racial and ethnic groups have been the primary contributors to the nation's population growth and changing .
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.............. ~ 111 2000 ' 2020 ' 2040 ' 2010 2030 2050 American Indian White FIGURE 3-1 Racial and ethnic composition of the United States: 1900 to 2050.
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Logically, because they are the most populous group, Whites (Figure 3-2b) most closely mirror age structure trends for the total United States, with a lower and stabilizing birth rate, the baby-boomer bulge around the middle-age groups in 1996, and an aging population.
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From page 46... ...
85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 1 950 1 996 9 6 o Percent of total for each year 6 9 12 15 FIGURE 3-2c 1950 Black (including Hispanic) and 1996 non-Hispanic Black age composition.
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SANDEFUR ET AL. 85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 47 1 950 1 996 Percent of total for each year FIGURE 3-2d 1950 and 1996 American Indian age composition.
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From page 48... ...
In 1950, more than 15 percent of the American Indian population were less than 5 years old; by 1996, the percentage was almost half that, at just over 8 percent; at this time, data are also included for Alaska Natives. Even with the decline, this percentage is still higher than that for the total United States or Whites, but comparable to percentages for Blacks and Asians.
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From page 49... ...
Higher percentages in the young age groups in 19701 may be a reflection of immigration of young children under the Immigration Act of 1965, which emphasized family reunification. The young age of the Hispanic population, coupled with current high rates of immigration, support projections that the Hispanic population will surpass Blacks as the largest minority group by the year 2010.
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bStatistics on Hispanic population limited to persons of Spanish origin in only five southwestern states during this year. CIncludes Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, and other Asians (Koreans, Asian Indians, and Malayans)
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The vast majority of the American Indian population resides in the West and South. Although the percentage has decreased slightly since the 1950s, close to one-half continue to reside in the West alone.
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Both the large size of the pre-existing southern Black population, and their net in-migration to the South beginning in the 1970s, account for this. At the same time, Blacks are more likely than Whites and American Indians, but less likely than Asians and Hispanics, to reside in metro areas.
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From page 54... ...
In the past few decades, the Hispanic population has gravitated toward a few key metro areas, including Los Angeles, New York, Miami, San Antonio, and Houston. The metro areas with the highest number of Hispanics are Los Angeles and San Antonio, where Hispanics made up 33 and 47 percent, respectively, of the total populations in 1990.
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SANDEFUR ET AL. TABLE 3-3 Continued 55 Year Metropolitan Area Group 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 Washington, Black 23.1 24.3 24.6 26.8 26.6 DC Hispanic 1.9 2.9 5.7 Asian 0.3e 0.3 0.6 2.6 5.2 American Indian c c 0.1 0.2 0.3 Chicago Black 10.3d 14.3d l7.6d l9.6d l9.2d Hispanic 5 8 11.1 Asian 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.8 3.2 American Indian c c 0.1 0.2 0.2 Dallas Fort Worth Black 13.4f 14.3f 15.9f 14.3d 14.3d Hispanic 2.8 3.3 4.6 8.5 13.4 Asian c c 0.1 0.8 2.5 American Indian c 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 awhile with Spanish surname for 1950 and 1960.
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From page 56... ...
In 1990, a little more than half of the American Indian population resided in metro areas, compared to 77 percent of all Americans. Reservations continue to be a feature of life that sets American Indians apart from other racial and ethnic groups.
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Because there was no Hispanic category on the U.S. census until the 1970 Census, internal migration data for the Hispanic population are lacking prior to the 1970s.
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In any case, the movement did not lead to significant changes in the distribution of the American Indian populations in metro and nonmetro areas (Snipp, 1989~. Understanding the Trends After World War II, White and Black migration closely followed changes in national and regional economies.
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From page 59... ...
Most recent immigrants rely on social networks of family and friends to aid in the settlement process. For Hispanic populations, geographic concentration is much more pronounced among foreign-born Hispanics than U.S.-born Hispanics (Bean and Tienda, 1987~; thus, newly arrived Hispanic immigrants have generally settled in large port-of-entry metros in the Northeast and South following historic immigration patterns.
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From page 60... ...
The rapid urbanization occurring in the second half of the twentieth century was brought about by federal urban relocation programs, primarily as a means to address deteriorating economic conditions on reservations by moving reservation populations into cities (Sorkin, 1971; Fixico, 1986~. Such federal policies contributed to the trend of urbanization that had begun among the American Indian population with the start of World War II, which drew significant numbers into military service and into urban-based war-related industries (Hagan, 1979; Bernstein, 1991~.
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From page 61... ...
population will reside in the West. Finally, the American Indian population is projected to be the second fastest growing group in the West.
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The median age at first marriage rose for both men and women, and divorce rates more than doubled, which led to a dramatic increase in single-parent families. Trends for racial and ethnic groups vary significantly within these overall trends in fertility rates and family patterns.
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From page 63... ...
census data show that Black women have, since data were collected, had higher fertility rates than White women (Farley and Allen, 1987~. In 1950, the total fertility rate for non-Whites was 3,579 per 1,000 women or 3.6 children per woman, compared to 2.9 for Whites (Farley and Allen, 1987~.
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From page 64... ...
64 o En to JO V)
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From page 65... ...
Thus, information about fertility rates of American Indians is even more limited than that for Hispanics. Table 3-4 shows that the total fertility rate of American Indians has been lower than that of Hispanics since the first data shown for that group, 1980, but above that of Whites since 1970.
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From page 66... ...
Table 3-4 shows that the total fertility rate for Asians was lower than that for Whites in 1965, but 6 percent higher than that for Whites in 1996. It is important to remember, however, that the care with which data are gathered for the Asian population has improved since 1965; so, the safest thing to say is that the evidence indicates that Asian fertility rates are lower than those for Hispanics, Blacks, and American Indians, but higher than those for Whites.
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From page 67... ...
As it has for Blacks, the relative difference in teenage fertility rates from that of Whites has widened for Hispanics and American Indians. Table 3-5 shows that Asian teenagers had the lowest general fertility rates of any of the groups in 1995.
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From page 69... ...
John (1998) notes that evidence suggests rising nonmarital fertility rates for American Indians, but explains that out-of-wedlock childbearing is relatively common among this group and is not met with particularly negative attitudes, although childbirth within marriage is still the norm.
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From page 71... ...
Throughout their lives, Black women spend less time married than do their White counterparts. According to 1975 to 1980 rates, Black women could expect to spend 16 years of a 73-year life span married, whereas White women could expect to spend 33 out of their 77 years married.
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From page 72... ...
72 .n o o .n cr~ 5o o 5V)
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In 1960, the number of Black men married to Black women was approximately equal to the number of Black women married to Black men; since then, interracial marriages among Black men increased relatively sharply. In 1994, 6.6 percent of Black men were married to someone of a different race (Table 3-8~.
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From page 75... ...
The general trends of higher rates of never-married and divorced persons have probably been reflected in the American Indian population, as well as the rise in the age at first marriage (Sandefur and Liebler, 1996~. The 1980 to 1990 percentages of American Indians divorced indicate a slower rate of increase relative to the total United States, but absolute differences grew simply because American Indians started with a higher percent of divorced persons.
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From page 76... ...
In 1990, almost 60 percent of married American Indians had non-American Indian spouses; but this increase, too, may be partially the result of shifting selfidentification. The 1980 Census data show that Asian men and women marry much later than the general U.S.
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From page 77... ...
for the Vietnamese population. In sum, fertility rates and family structure have undergone significant
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From page 78... ...
78 o o ., be ., oo be ¢ 5g 5~ .~., to o ·~ ~ V)
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Infant mortality statistics are derived from two vital statistics registration forms birth and death certificates. Inconsistencies in coding of race and ethnicity have been found across forms, and greater inconsistencies are found for Asians, American Indians, and Hispanics.
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The 1990 life expectancy for American Indians is 2 years less than the 1990 life expectancy of Whites. Little historical information is available for the life expectancies of Hispanics and Asians.
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After adjusting for their age composition, Whites have lower standardized death rates and have rates closer to those of Asians and Hispanics. Blacks have the highest age-adjusted death rates across all points in time for both the total group population and by sex, followed by American Indians, and then Whites.
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From page 83... ...
For 1979 to 1981, and among Hispanic groups, Cubans had the lowest standardized death rates, and Mexicans ranged between Cubans and Puerto Ricans, who had the highest rates (Maurer et
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From page 84... ...
For both Whites and Blacks, female age-adjusted death rates are a little less than half the age-adjusted rates of males. The differences are smaller for Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians.
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From page 85... ...
On a death certificate, the race of a child is not determined by any uniform rules, but by the next of kin or an official local or state recorder. The change in race coding of live births led to significant increases in the rates of infant mortality for racial and ethnic minority groups, especially for American Indians, Japanese, and Hawaiians (Hoyert, 1994~; and this change limits our ability to compare rates before and after 1989.
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From page 86... ...
9.6 9.3 9.5 9.4 9.5 White 9.5 9.2 9.5 9.4 9.5 Non-White 11.2 10.0 10.1 9.6 9.4 Black 11.3 10.4 10.4 10.0 Hispanic Asian Chinese 9.0 6.8 4.7 Japanese 6.1 5.1 4.2 American Indian Age Adjusted for Both Sexesa Total U.S. 8.4 7.6 7.6 7.4 7.1 White 8.0 7.3 7.3 7.0 6.8 Non-White 12.3 10.4 10.5 10.1 9.8 Black 10.7 10.5 10.4 Hispanic Asian Chinese 4.9 Japanese 3.3 American Indian Age Adjusted for Malesa Total U.S.
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From page 87... ...
SANDEFUR ET AL. d, 1950 87 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 9.4 9.5 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.6 8.8 9.4 9.5 8.7 8.9 9.0 8.9 9.1 9.6 9.4 8.2 7.9 7.4 7.4 10.4 10.0 8.8 8.8 8.5 8.7 8.6 3.7b 3.5 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.0 4.7 3.7 4.2 4.0 4.9 4.2 4.0 4.5 7.4 7.1 6.2 5.9 5.5 5.2 5.0 7.0 6.8 6.0 5.6 5.2 4.9 4.8 10.1 9.8 8.4 7.7 7.1 6.9 10.5 10.4 8.9 8.4 7.9 7.9 7.6 4.6b 3.9 3.2 3.1 3.0 3.0 4.9 3.5 3.3 2.9 5.6 4.7 4.5 4.7 9.5 9.3 8.2 7.8 7.2 6.8 6.5 9.1 8.9 8.0 7.5 6.9 6.4 6.1 12.2 12.3 10.9 10.1 9.3 9.1 12.7 13.2 11.6 11.1 10.5 10.6 10.1 6.12b 5.2 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.8 7.3 6.0 5.7 5.8 5.6 5.3 4.6 4.3 4.1 3.9 3.9 5.3 5.0 4.4 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.6 8.3 7.7 6.3 5.8 5.4 5.1 8.6 8.1 6.7 6.3 5.9 5.8 5.7 3.3b 2.7 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.1 3.5 3.4 3.7 SOURCES: National Center for Health Statistics (1996:Tables 1-2 and 1-3~; Anderson et al.
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From page 88... ...
88 En o of En V)
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From page 89... ...
89 ~ Cal ~ CO ~ ON ~ .
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From page 90... ...
Reductions in postneonatal mortality account for the overall attenuation of infant mortality rates for Asians and Hispanics since 1985. Explaining Mortality Trends The reduction in infectious and parasitic diseases largely accounts for the lower death rates and longer life expectancies reported here.
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From page 91... ...
The Indian Health Service and tribal health clinics, for example, greatly improved the health conditions of American Indians in areas of infant mortality, tuberculosis, gastrointestinal disease, and accidents (Indian Health Service, 1995~. One of the three broad goals of the Presidential Healthy People 2000 Plan included targeted efforts to reduce health disparities for racial and ethnic groups, especially along the lines of infant mortality and certain causes of death (Plepys and Klein, 1995; also see the discussion in Volume II, Chapter 13~.
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From page 92... ...
These measures could help bring our population one step closer to a convergence in infant mortality and life expectancy. Racial and ethnic minority groups suffer disproportionately from higher mortality rates and, thus, lower life expectancies and unequal chances for survival.
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From page 93... ...
Hispanic women have traditionally had much higher fertility rates than Whites and slightly higher rates than Blacks. In 1996, American Indian women had higher fertility rates than White, Black, and Asian women, for whom the rate was lowest, mostly because American Indian women start childbearing earlier and continue to have children much later than women in other racial and ethnic groups.
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From page 94... ...
1991 American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press.
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From page 95... ...
Eschbach, K 1993 Changing identification among American Indians and Alaska Natives.
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From page 96... ...
1994 Effect on mortality rates of the 1989 change in tabulating race. National Center for Health Statistics.
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From page 97... ...
Atkinson 1998 Infant mortality statistics from the linked birth/infant death data set, 1995 period data. Monthly Vital Statistics Report 46~6)
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From page 98... ...
Pastore, L., and M MacDorman 1995 Infant mortality by Hispanic origin of mother: 20 states, 1985-1987 birth cohort.
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From page 99... ...
Shai, D., and I Rosenwaike 1991 An overview of age-adjusted death rates among three Hispanic populations in their home countries and in the United States.
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From page 100... ...
1963k 1960 Census of Population, Subject Reports, PC(3) -1D, Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas.
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From page 101... ...
1973d 1970 Census of Population, Subject Reports, PC(2) -1F, American Indian Population.
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From page 102... ...
Government Printing Office. 1986 1980 Census of Population, Subject Reports, PC80-2-1D, American Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts on Identified Reservations and in the Historic Areas of Oklahoma (Excluding Urbanized Areas)
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