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From page 363...
... See also Methodologies, learning assessment; Self-assessment accountability, 20, 271-272 alternative, 192 conditionalized knowledge and, 43 content-process framework, 143-144 cultural sensitivity in, 72, 110-111, 146 with feedback, 19, 43, 140-141, 154 formative, 19, 24-25, 140-141, 142, 152, 154, 167, 217, 219, 257-258, 268, 277 grading practices, 146 of initial learning, 55, 56, 57 learning environments centered on, 139144, 154, 188, 196-197 learning goals and, 18-19 memorization focus, 9, 140, 141, 152, 189, 245 multiple-choice tests, 140 portfolio, 142, 220 principles, 139-140 research recommendations, 251, 254-257, 258-259, 261-263 science education, 143-144, 277 standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210-211, 220, 271-272 state education standards, 271 of strategic competence, 97 summative, 140, 141, 154, 189 teacher training, 27, 197-198, 246-247, 264-266, 267-268 certification programs, 197, 272-273 theoretical frameworks, 142-144 of understanding, formats for, 56, 141, 142, 143 uses, 140 Astrocytes, 119, 126 Automaticity of skills, 139 Axons, 116 B Bank Street College, 208, 227 Bay Area and National Writing Project, 195, 197 Behaviorism, 6-8 Beliefs, teachers, 48, 72, 73, 158, 159, 160161, 164, 170, 171, 195, 199, 203 Belvedere system, 214 Biological causality, 4, 88-89, 90, 112, 233 Biology, 68, 70-71, 174-177, 184-186, 187, 193, 216, 227, 233 Brain development, 235 basics, 116-117 blood vessel formation, 118-120, 126 environments for learning and, 119 exercise and, 117-119, 120
From page 364...
... 364 INDEX experiences and, 117-119, 120, 121, 124125, 126-127, 233 functional organization, 120-121, 122-123, 126 instruction and, 121-123 language and, 121-124, 127 learning and, 4, 114-115, 119-121 misconceptions about, 114 neural activity and, 119-120, 127, 276 plasticity, 123, 233, 276 social interaction and, 119, 126 synaptic connections, 116-118, 119-120, 122, 126 timetable for, 121-122, 126-127 Brain processes memory and, 124-126 silent areas, 114 Breadloaf Writing Project, 198 BreadNet, 198 Bridging strategy, 179, 180, 187 Bruer, John, 127 Bush, Vannevar, 213 C Calculus, 66 Case-based learning, 62, 77 Cat learning, 6-8 Causality biological, 4, 88-89, 90, 112 physical, 84-88 Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project, 222 Cheche Konnen approach, 183-184, 187, 241 Chess, 32, 34-36, 43, 56 Chicago Teachers Academy for Mathematics and Science, 195 Children's learning, 234-235. See also Infant cognition biological causality, 4, 88-89, 90, 112, 233 caregiver-child interactions, 103-104, 112113 children's conceptions of intelligence and, 82, 101-102 choosing strategies, 99-101 community environments, 82, 111, conversational, 109-110 cultural factors, 23, 108-111, 113, 233, 276 eavesdropping, 109-110 guided learning, 102-111 inquiry-based, 107, 110-111 language, 4, 91-95, 102, 109, 112, 121 mathematics, 4, 12, 69, 71, 91, 92, 112, 137-138, 196 memory capacity and, 18, 58, 95-96 metacognition, 18-19, 21, 47, 82, 97-98 motivation, 61, 77, 101-102, 112 multiple intelligences and, 82, 101 multiple-strategy usage, 98-101 non-self-directed, 102 number concepts, 4, 91, 92, 112 observational, 109 physical concepts, 87-88, 102, 112 preconceptions, 10-12, 14-16, 19-20, 24, 70-71, 136, 153, 218, 236-237, 255, 261-262, 263 prior knowledge, 10-11, 14, 53, 54-55, 68-73, 78, 233 privileged-domain competencies, 81-82, 84-95, 102, 112 processing time, 58 reading, 105-108 reasoning complexity, 99, 138, 153 science, 138, 183-186 self-directed, 102 story-telling, 108 strategic competence, 82, 95, 96-98, 112 television and, 26, 82, 150 tool use, 87-88 Chunking/clustering technique, 32-33, 38, 52, 96-97 Classroom Action Research Network, 199 Classrooms communications technology for, 182, 219, 247 community connections, 25-26, 207-208, 224-226, 246 competitiveness of students, 146 environments for learning, 23-24, 144147, 154, 246, 247 Global Lab, 209 norms and expectations, 145-147, 188 research based in, 199-200, 248, 252-254, 255, 259 Classtalk, 182, 219 Coaching, 42, 68, 177-178, 180-182, 222-223 Cognitive and motivational factors, 280 representations and strategies, 65, 144, 145, 243 science, 8, 234, 244-245, 276, 279 Cognitively Guided Instruction Project, 197
From page 365...
... See also Expert performance; Strategic competence zone of proximal development, 70-71, 72, 108 Competitiveness of students, 146 Comprehension-fostering activities, 107-108 Computational modeling research, 14 Computer language tasks, 53, 55, 60, 65 Computer programming experts, 33 Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) , 219-220, 221, 227 Computer technology classroom communications systems, 182, 247 classroom-community connections, 82, 207-208, 209, 224-226 curriculum innovations, 4, 21, 68, 207213, 262-263 feedback through, 178, 182, 216-224, 243, 258 games, 16 importance, 206-207, 229-230, 233, 243, 247 Internet, 27, 209, 220, 224-226, 227-228, 243, 270, 282 recommendations, 243-244, 247, 255-256, 257, 258, 262-263, 269, 270, 277, 284 scaffolds and scaffolding, 68, 213-216, 243 science of learning, databases, 278-279 teacher learning opportunities, 194, 195, 198, 226-229, 269 tools, 21, 68, 74, 207, 213-216, 243-244, 247, 257 tutoring environments, 178, 221-224, 225 Concepts knowledge organized around, 9, 33, 36, 38, 42-44, 49, 181-182 representations of, 63, 65-66, 276 Conceptual change.
From page 366...
... , 105-107 E Eavesdropping, 109-110 Education goal changes, 4-5, 131-133 science of learning and, 4-5, 13-14 teacher preservice, 200-203, 204, 228, 229 Elaboration, 96 Entity theories, 102 Environments for learning, 4, 23-26, 233, 243-247, 273-274, 276 alignment of goals, 151-152, 154 assessment-centered, 139-144, 154, 188, 196-197 and brain development, 119 classrooms, 23-24, 144-147, 154, 246, 247 community-centered, 25-26, 144-149, 154, 188, 197-199, 245-246 educational goal changes, 131-133 family, 26, 103-104, 108-111, 112-113, 148-149, 153, 154, 245-246 interconnected components, 133, 134, 136, 138, 154 knowledge-centered, 24, 136-139, 153, 188, 194-195 language development and, 93-95 learner centered, 23-24, 133-136, 138, 153, 188, 192-194, 212-213, 233 for teachers, 4, 192-199 television, 26, 149-151 Ethnography, 110-111 Exercise, and brain development, 117-119, 120 Experiences and brain development, 117-119, 120, 121, 124-125, 126-127, 233 prior, and transfer of learning, 53, 54-55, 68-73, 78 Expert performance, 237-238, 258, 261 adaptive, 45-48, 50, 51, 73, 133, 140, 233 content/subject matter knowledge and, 16-17, 24, 45, 50, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163-164, 166, 188 context and access to knowledge, 9, 4244, 49, 77 metacognition and, 18, 47-48, 50 organization of knowledge, 4, 16-17, 3642, 45, 48, 49, 50, 56, 125, 136, 139, 155, 233, 237-238, 239, 242 pattern recognition, 17, 32-36, 44, 48, 50, 56 principles of, 31, 36-38, 272 retrieval of knowledge, 32-33, 44, 49, 50, 56 segmentation of perceptual fields, 36 talent and, 58 teaching ability, 4, 33, 36, 37, 44-45, 46, 49-50, 155-157, 159-161, 188, 228-229, 241-242, 258 time investment for, 56, 58 Extracurricular clubs and organizations, 149
From page 367...
... See also Preconceptions assessment of, 55, 56, 57 elements that promote, 53, 55-61 memorization and, 55-56, 57 monitoring and feedback, 58-60 motivation and, 60-61 tests of, 66 time allowed for, 56, 58 and transfer of learning, 51, 53, 55-61, 66, 68, 77, 203 understanding and, 55-56, 57, 236 Inquiry-based instruction, 11-12, 16-17, 19, 21, 68, 107, 110-111, 156-157, 217 Institute for Research on Learning, 213 Instruction abstract, 65-66 and brain development, 121-123 bridging strategy, 179, 180, 187 case-based, 62, 64 changes in methods, 132-133 367
From page 368...
... See also Schemas retrieval fluency, 32-33, 44, 49 standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210-211, 220, 271-272 teacher learning environments, 20, 27, 194-195, 198 Knowledge Forum, 219 L Labeling, 104, 107 LabNet Project, 198, 227 Language development and abstract thought, 79 adult-infant interactions, 73, 104 and brain development, 121-124, 127, 235 Cheche Konnen approach, 241 context and, 94-95 cultural differences in, 109-110, 135-136 early, 4, 73, 81-85, 102, 112, 235 eavesdropping and, 109-110 environments for learning and, 93-95 sign language, 122-123 situated, 94, 109 story-telling, 73, 105, 108 Learner-centered environments, 23-24, 133136, 138, 153, 188, 192-194, 212-213, 233 Learning-oriented learners, 61 Learning theories, 3, 14, 48, 51, 53, 63, 65, 131, 199, 203, 204, 250 assessment linked to, 142-144 infants' capabilities, 79-82 Learning Through Collaborative Visualization (CoVis) Project, 212, 215, 221 Levin, James, 227-228
From page 369...
... See also Organization of knowledge; Retrieval of knowledge and brain processes, 124-126 children's capacity, 18, 58, 95-96 declarative, 124 experiments, 34-35 experts vs novices, 17 false, 125 infants, 83 procedural, 124 short-term, 33, 34-35, 48 strategies, 96-97 synaptic connections and, 117 Metacognition children's learning and, 18-19, 21, 47, 82, 97-98, 233 defined, 12, 47 expertise and, 18, 47-48, 50 instruction approaches, 12, 21, 22, 67-68, 78, 137, 140, 217, 258 Methodologies, learning assessment graduated prompting, 66 infants, 79, 82-84 think-aloud, 32, 184 standardized tests, 132 Microgenetic studies, 100 Microworlds, interactive computer, 216 Middle School Mathematics Through Application Projects, 213-214 Minds on Physics, 193, 194-195 Misconceptions, 14-15, 78, 178-179, 185-186, 187, 240 about brain development, 114 cultural, 151 mathematics, 15, 261 science, 15, 70, 179-180, 218, 229, 237, 240-241 about teaching, 156, 163, 188, 242, 264, 265, 266-267 Model-based learning, 10, 63, 67-68, 166, 168, 170-171, 215, 240, 243 Modeling, 67, 68, 258-259, 265 computational modeling research, 14 technology-based tools, 20-21, 215, 216 369
From page 370...
... 370 INDEX Model-It, 216 Monitoring of learning, 58-59, 67-68, 78 Motivation to learn achievement/competence, 61, 102, 103, 212-213 behaviorism, 6 children's, 61, 77, 101-102, 112 cognitive ability and, 280 competence, 60 computer technology and, 210-211, 212213, 224, 227 learning orientation and, 61 performance orientation and, 61 social opportunities and, 61 Motor skills, 56, 65, 119, 121 Multiple-choice tests, 140 Multiple intelligences, 82, 101 Multiple strategies concept, 98-101 Multiplication, teaching, 165-166 N National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 259 National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 202 National Research Council, 138 National Science Foundation, 192 Navajos, 146 Neostriatum, 124 Nerve cells, 116, 126 Neural activity, 119-120, 127, 235, 276 Neuroimaging, 115, 124, 125 Non-self-directed learning, 102 Novices accomplished, 48 experts compared with, 31-50 Numbers early concepts, 4, 89-91, 92, 112 negative, 166-168 rational, 71, 72, 74, 91, 112 o Observational learning, 109, 146 Oral skills, oral tradition, 73, 105, 108 Organization of knowledge, 4, 238-239, 281 chunking/clustering technique, 32-33, 38, 52, 96-97 cognitive activity and, 143-144 conceptual, 9, 38, 42-44, 49, 181-182 experts, 4, 16-17, 36-42, 45, 48, 50, 56, 125, 136, 139, 155, 233, 237-238, 239, 242 hierarchical structures, 173-177, 216 in schemes, 33, 36, 38, 40, 59, 65-66 p Parallel distributed processing, 14 Parental involvement. See Family Pattern recognition, expertise and, 17, 32-36, 44, 48, 50, 56 Pause times, 38, 49 Pedagogical content knowledge, 45, 50, 155156, 163-164, 166, 168, 188, 242 research, 199, 258 teacher learning opportunities, 194, 199 Pedagogy generic, 194 research laboratories, 268-269 theory of, 11 Perceptual learning, 60, 70 Performance-oriented learners, 61, 245 Phenomenological primitives, 181 Philadelphia Teachers Learning Cooperative, 199 Phonemes, 121 Photosynthesis, 71-72 Physical causality, 102 Physical concepts, 84-88 children's competencies, 84-88, 102, 112 Physical models, 185 Physics, 11-12 assessments of understanding, 141, 142, 143 calculus and, 66 computer tools, 21, 68, 216, 217, 218, 227 databases, 278-279 experts, 33, 37-38, 39, 171-172 hierarchical analyses, 172-173 metacognition and, 19 Minds on Physics curriculum, 193, 194195 misconceptions, 15, 70, 179-180, 218, 237 qualitative strategies, 171-172 teacher learning opportunities, 193, 194195, 197, 199 teaching strategies, 172-182, 187
From page 371...
... See also Science of learning focus, 5-6 recommendations, 248-270, 276 Retrieval of knowledge chunking technique, 32-33, 38, 52 context of original learning and, 62 cueing, 98 expertise and, 32-33, 44, 49, 50, 56 practice, 98 schematic organization and, 66 371
From page 372...
... , 136-137 girls' participation in, 145 interactive instruction in large classes, 182 language practices in, 135-136 public policy issues, 214 real-world learning approaches, 212-213, 214 research recommendations, 261, 277 scientific reasoning, 186-187 standards, 136 strategies, 138, 171-178 student-scientist partnerships, 209, 217 teacher learning opportunities, 193-194, 195 teaching, 171-187 for young and "at risk" children, 138, 183-186 Science of learning active learning, 12-13 development, 6-8 educational implications, 4-5, 13-14 evolution of, 3-4, 14 methodological research, 277-278 pre-existing knowledge, 10-12 research recommendations, 276, 277-279, 283-284 understanding, emphasis on, 8-9 Self-assessment, 12, 140, 244, 257 Self-directed learning, 68, 102 Self-regulation, 19, 97-98 Sense-making approaches, 12, 137, 159-161, 165, 183-184, 187, 198 Sesame Street, 151 Sherlock Project, 222-223 Situated learning, 88, 94, 104, 107-108, 109, 112, 134, 199 SMART Challenge Series, 217, 219 Social interactions, 103, 184, 233, 243 and brain development, 119, 126 caregiver-child, 103-104, 112-113 Social opportunities, and motivations to learn, 61 Social studies, 4, 61, 157, 219 Software, educational, 4, 68, 182, 207-213, 214, 215, 216, 219-220, 221, 227, 244 Spelling, 99 Spines, dendritic, 116 Standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210-211, 220, 271-272 State education standards, 271 STELLA modeling environment, 216 Stereotyping, 145, 151 Story-telling, 73, 105, 108 Strategic competence, 182 assessment of, 97 children's, 82, 95, 96-98, 112 choosing strategies, 99-101 multiple strategies, 98-101 Stroke victims, 123, 235 Structural knowledge. See Organization of knowledge Student Conference on Global Warming, 212-213 Subject-matter (discipline)
From page 373...
... See also Instruction accountability, 20 Cheche Konnen approach, 183-184, 187, 241 cultural sensitivity in, 133-134, 135-136, 153 diagnostic, 134-135 differential views of subject matter, 158 expert, 4, 33, 36, 37, 44-45, 46, 49-50, 155-157, 159-161, 188, 228-229, 241242, 258 goals-practices relationship, 12-13 history, 157-164, 241 knowledge of individual learners, 20, 168-170 learner-centered, 23-24, 133-134 left brain/right brain, 114 mathematics, 50, 164-171, 194 memory processes and, 125 metacognitive skills, 21 misconceptions about, 156, 163, 188 pedagogical content knowledge, 45, 50, 155-156, 163-164, 166, 168, 188, 194, 242 philosophical traditions of, 201 physics, 172-182, 187 preconceptions of students, 10-12, 14-16, 19-20, 24, 70-71, 136, 153, 218, 236237, 255, 261-262, 263 preconceptions of teachers, 264, 265, 266-267 reading, 67 reciprocal, 18, 67, 100, 108 science, 171-187, 191, 193-195, 240-241 subject-matter expertise, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163-164, 166, 188, 202-203 by telling, 11, 71 written composition, 67 Technologies. See Computer technology; Video-based learning programs Television, 26, 82, 95, 149-151 Text-editor experiment, 65, 66 Theoretical problem description, 175-176 Theory of mind, 82, 101-102 ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum, 21, 217 Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 42, 137 Thorndike, Edward L., 6-8 Time capsules, 159 Time on task, 18, 56, 58, 77-78, 235-236, 239 Time to learn, 56, 58, 67-68 Tools infant use of, 87-88 research recommendations, 251, 255-256, 267-270 technology, 68, 74, 213-216, 268-269.
From page 374...
... See Internet Writing, 67, 132, 195, 214, 222-223, 227 Wundt, Wilhelm, 6 z Zone of proximal development, 80-81, 92, 108


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