Marine Protected Areas Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems (2001) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Historical Background and Evaluation of Marine Protected Areas in the United Sates
Historical Background and Evaluation of Marine Protected Areas in the United Sates
Pages 145-173
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 145... ...
During the 1950s and early 1960s, as marine ecosystems became more heavily exploited by fishing and affected by other human activities, the need to devise methods to manage and protect marine environments and resources became more apparent. Over the last 20 years, many ocean areas served as de facto reserves 145
|
From page 146... ...
Specific components of the Caribbean ecosystem are targeted for protection, including coral reefs, mangrove forests, and seagrass beds. The first conference on marine protected areas was sponsored by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN, now known as the World Conservation Union)
|
From page 147... ...
1950s and 1960s Decline in catch or effort ratios in various fisheries around the world At the global level, the need to devise methods to manage and protect marine environments and resources became strongly apparent 1958 Four conventions, known as the Established an international Geneva Conventions on the Law framework for protection of living of the Sea were adopted. These marine resources were the Convention on the Continental Shelf the Convention on the High Seas, the Convention on Fishing, and the Convention on Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 1962 The First World Conference on Development of the concept of National Parks considered the need protecting specific areas and for protection of coastal and habitats marine areas 1971 The Convention on Wetlands of Provided a specific basis for International Importance Especially nations to establish MPAs to as Waterfowl Habitat (known as protect wetlands the Ramsar Convention)
|
From page 148... ...
conducted a representative of the world's Conference on MPAs in Tokyo marine ecosystems 1982 The IUCN Commission on An important outcome of these National Parks and Protected Areas workshops was publication by organized a series of workshops on IUCN (1994) of Marine and the creation and management of Coastal Protected Areas: A marine and coastal protected areas.
|
From page 149... ...
, with the function established in each region of accelerating the establishment and effective management of a global system of MPAs 1987-1988 The Fourth World Wilderness These resolutions adopted a Congress passed a resolution that statement of a primary goal, established a policy framework for defined "marine protected area," marine conservation. A similar identified a series of specific resolution was passed by the objectives to be met in attaining Seventeenth General Assembly of the primary goal, and summarized IUCN the conditions necessary for that attainment 1994 The United Nations Convention on These two international the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
|
From page 150... ...
organized a series of workshops at the Third World Congress on National Parks in Indonesia to promote the creation and management of marine and coastal protected areas. This workshop resulted in the publication of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers (Salary and Clark, 1984~.
|
From page 151... ...
. National parks presently engaged in reducing or eliminating fisheries (e.g., Glacier Bay National Monument, Channel Islands National Park)
|
From page 152... ...
However, to date, this inventory includes land areas that border on but do not contain marine waters and does not include areas designated under fishery management regulations (see Table 8-2~. In addition, there are descriptive or educational overviews of protected areas, for example, national marine sanctuaries (Seaborn, 1996; Earle and Henry, 1999)
|
From page 153... ...
U.S. MPAs Federal 390 149,742,686 State 736 2,535,715 Nongovernmental organizations 128 213,275 Federal Sites NOAA 33 11,923,332 National Marine Sanctuariesb 12 11,502,720 National Forest Service 114 38,073,257 U.S.
|
From page 154... ...
NPS is under pressure to reduce or eliminate commercial and recreational fishing inside NPS-administered boundaries (Davis, 1998) , including Glacier Bay National Park, Everglades National Park, and Channel Islands National Park (Kronman, 1999)
|
From page 155... ...
, parks cooperate with neighboring national marine sanctuaries to increase their effectiveness. Research in the marine components of the national parks is supported under a variety of NPS-funded and non-park-funded programs but not at the scale required to meet needs.
|
From page 156... ...
(1 nmi2) to the extensive Olympic Coast (Washington State)
|
From page 157... ...
A panel of the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA, 2000) recently undertook a review of the National Marine Sanctuaries Program.
|
From page 158... ...
158 as as V)
|
From page 159... ...
Sanctuary managers must work with regional fishery management councils and state fisheries officials to respond to specific measures required for managing fisheries. As an example, Channel Islands National Park and Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary are currently engaged in general management planning processes that could lead to various restrictions, including possible "no-take" zones, on recreational and commercial fishing for rockfish and other species.
|
From page 160... ...
The fact that the process was inclusive and focused on the dual interests of providing for coral reef protection and at the same time not unduly affecting other user groups demonstrates that collaborative, consensus-oriented processes provide effective mechanisms for developing viable management options in areas with high levels of conflict (see Chapter 4, Box 4-2~. The NMS program has been successful in increasing the public profile of the sanctuaries and increasing public awareness of the nation's marine resources and conservation needs through effective public outreach and education programs, such as the Sustainable Seas Expeditions.
|
From page 161... ...
Monitoring is conducted on a more systematic basis than for most other protected areas but often as a result of scientific monitoring for research purposes or through volunteer activities (T. Stevens, Manager, Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, personal communication, 1999~.
|
From page 162... ...
The eight regional fishery management councils were established under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act in an advisory role to NMFS with the responsibility to develop management plans for the fisheries under their jurisdiction. The National Marine Sanctuary Program must work through the regional fishery management councils and NMFS to implement fishery regulations within a sanctuary (see Figure 8-1~.
|
From page 164... ...
In some areas, fishery reserves may simply reallocate the catch to recreational rather than commercial fisheries, with no evidence that ecosystem function will improve. Work by NMFS, and the regional fishery management councils to fully implement the habitat provisions of the 1996 amendments to the Magnuson
|
From page 165... ...
The Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council recently approved two marine reserves to evaluate their effectiveness in protecting grouper populations. Under the essential fish habitat provisions of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, regional fishery management councils must assess habitat needs of all managed species and amend their fishery management plans accordingly to provide protection where required.
|
From page 166... ...
Drigot, personal communication; Johnson et al., 1999~. Besides direct designation of distinct MPAs such as national parks, sanctuaries, and estuarine reserves, existing legislation permits federal agencies to take actions that include establishing no-take reserves and other protective measures that may be equally or more effective depending on the conflict or opportunity at hand (Table 8-3~.
|
From page 167... ...
§ 1131 Designation of National Marine Sanctuaries for the purpose of comprehensive and coordinated conservation and management while facilitating compatible public and private use of resources not prohibited by other authorities Establishes fishery management authority over living marine resources on the Continental Shelf and in the EEZ. Includes national standards, regional fishery management councils and requirements for fishery management plans; also includes authority to designate open and closed areas as fishery management tools to protect spawning and rearing populations, essential fish habitat, habitat areas of particular concern, etc.
|
From page 168... ...
§§ 2701 et seq.) Federal Water Pollution Control Act/ Clean Water Act, as amended (33 U.S.C.
|
From page 169... ...
§§ 470aa et seq.) and establishes a moratorium on taking and importing marine mammals and their products except in special circumstances Establishes federal jurisdiction over submerged lands in the OCS and allows leasing of minerals and energy resources, management of exploration and development, protection of the marine and coastal environment, development of improved technologies, and opportunities for state and local participation in policy and planning decisions Protects historic preservation sites from looting and permits the recovery of these items under permit when inside national parks, wildlife refuges, etc.
|
From page 170... ...
They found that private entities such as the Nature Conservancy and land trusts, as well as cities and counties, have participated in developing the concept. An innovative approach to no-take fisheries reserves in Washington State is being undertaken by San Juan County with its voluntary bottomfish fish recovery areas (D.
|
From page 171... ...
In addition to these broad management measures, marine areas have been designated for national parks, estuarine research reserves, marine sanctuaries, and wildlife refuges, as well as fishery reserves. In most cases, state and local programs parallel the legislative efforts at the federal level.
|
From page 172... ...
Fishery Management The discussion of fishery management above covers primarily federal waters. In state and local areas, there are a large number of fishery reserves established for specific purposes.
|
From page 173... ...
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND EVALUATION OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 173 could range from a shoreside community asking for protective designations in its own "front yards," even if they are not necessarily highly ranked sites for fish production or marine biodiversity, to local governments designating "voluntary" zones for fish recovery. As society becomes more aware of the values that it places on the marine environment, the services it provides, and the potential losses due to degradation, it can be expected that managers will be increasingly called upon to protect these services.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.