Marine Protected Areas Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems (2001) / Chapter Skim
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Design
Design
Pages 97-125
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From page 97... ...
For example, residents of an exclusive development hotly contested plans to include an ecological reserve adjacent to Key Largo in the newly created Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (U.S.
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From page 98... ...
All of these efforts focus on the problem of selecting individual marine reserves, but there is a growing awareness that this piecemeal approach to reserve establishment ultimately may fail to protect species and functional ecosystems. The implication derived from the broad dispersal capabilities and
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From page 99... ...
Much of the opposition that blocked zoning plans for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary hinged on arguments that the locations of zones had not been chosen objectively. One of the original ecological reserve sites proposed, the Dry Tortugas, incorporated an area that satisfied neither conservationists nor fishers.
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From page 100... ...
In this example, the reserve scores 61% for protection of biota, 55% for its contribution to fishery management, and 76% for provision of human uses, or 69% overall. This procedure has been applied to all of the existing reserves in South Africa and has helped evaluate the extent to which they are able to meet their objectives.
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From page 101... ...
101 Cape Point ca ~ ~ r ~ By, ~ ~ ~ u ~ ~ ~ _ C)
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From page 102... ...
used these criteria to design potential networks of fully protected reserves for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. They used computer-based selection algorithms to choose network designs that represented all habitats according to their relative coverage in the region.
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From page 103... ...
Within biogeographic regions, candidate sites can be ranked on the basis of species richness or complementarily analyses used to ensure representation of species present (e.g., Roberts et al., in review b; Turpie et al., 2000~. However, few sites have detailed data on species composition.
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104 MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: TOOLS FOR SUSTAINING OCEAN ECOSYSTEMS equivalent proportions of each habitat. Some reserves might consist entirely of one habitat, whereas others would contain a variety.
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From page 105... ...
Potential sites may be scored against a series of six modifying criteria that affect their value as candidates for MPAs and reserves. Not all of these criteria are applicable to all objectives for MPA sites, but each is important for the development of successful networks of marine reserves: 1.
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From page 106... ...
(in review) show how these criteria can be applied to the problem of placing no-take zones in the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary in California.
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From page 107... ...
, in cooperation with the Department of the Interior, "to establish a Marine Protected Area Center...to develop a framework for a national system of MPAs." Biodiversity conservation, fishery production, and the full suite of ecosystem services depend on maintaining ecosystem integrity. This is a central objective for the creation of representative systems and fully interconnected networks (Agardy, 1997; Roberts et al., in review a, b)
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From page 108... ...
How Do International Political Boundaries Influence Reserve Selection? Thus far, network development has been framed in the context of biogeographic regions, but biogeographic boundaries rarely coincide with political ones.
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From page 109... ...
For example, recruitment on coral reefs in Florida probably includes inputs of larvae from reefs off Cuba and several Central American countries; therefore the quality of resource management in these countries should concern managers in Florida (Ogden, 1997~. Cross-border reserves illustrate a second way in which international collaboration can be beneficial.
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From page 110... ...
The fauna at the vent ecosystems occurs nowhere else in the deep sea, and a high level of endemism appears to exist at many vent sites. The geological and geochemical characteristics of the hydrothermal vents are also unique, and the polymetallic sulfide deposits formed at spreading centers are a potential source of economically valuable minerals such as copper ores.
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From page 111... ...
has recommended that 20% of coral reefs and associated habitat types receive protection in reserves. Although the 20% figure is widely quoted, it is often criticized as being arbitrary
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From page 112... ...
When the Reef Fishery Plan Development Team (RFPDT, 1990) recommended the protection of 20% of the continental shelf off the southeastern United States in 1990, its report was met with incredulity and hostility from the fishing industry, and the proposal was shelved.
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113 so o o .
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114 .~ ED so ¢ ca c' v, · ~ so · ~ so v o · ~ v o 0 ~ ~ 0 0 ~ ~ 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·0 c' 0 cd O ca SO ~ a ~ ' ~ e .
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From page 115... ...
Although fishery management issues provide much of the justification for reserves, some recent studies have examined more general conservation arguments. Almost all discussions of the design of systems of reserves emphasize the importance of preserving the same species and habitats through replication in several different reserve sites.
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From page 116... ...
show that larger closures are needed to maintain populations if no additional management measures are applied outside the reserves. Beyond predicting that more reserve area will be needed as human impacts increase, we still have no clear guidance as to how the proportion of sea requiring protection will change as the intensity of impact outside reserves increases.
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From page 117... ...
The viability of marine reserves depends on more than biology. It requires adequate enforcement and compliance greater acceptance of small areas generally translates into higher compliance.
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From page 118... ...
MULTIPLE-USE ZONING OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS The primary focus of the first section of this chapter has been fully protected reserves, but the intensity and extent of our activities in the ocean are likely to require broader management approaches that offer different levels of protection. For example, as currently conceived, the National Marine Sanctuary Program has a mandate to ensure harmonious use of resources within its sanctuaries.
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From page 119... ...
In addition to these fully-protected reserves, zoning plans can be used to separate incompatible activities and provide spatially defined management areas that help protect ecosystem attributes while allowing compatible uses. The focus of marine management in the United States has historically been on commercial and recreational fishing.
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From page 120... ...
In each case, the proposed closure prohibits bottom fishing and boat anchoring, thus providing refuges for groundfish and preventing damage to habitat, but allowing surface or mid-water fisheries to continue. Fishers argue that the overlying assemblages are not directly associated with the seamounts or pinnacles and could still support viable recreational and commercial fisheries.
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From page 121... ...
, to a nationally endorsed legal instrument as required under Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act. Whatever the format, most plans will include the following elements: · statement of the goals and objectives for the planned area as a whole; · definition of the area with a formal statement of the boundaries of the planned area, a geographic description of its setting and accessibility, and a description of the resources of the area; · description of activities in the area, concentrating on present uses but in the context of past types and levels of use in the absence of a plan the description should include social and economic analyses; · description of the existing legal and management framework applying to coastal fisheries, marine transportation, and other present uses of the area; where they still exist or can be recalled, traditional practices of management, ownership, or rights to the use of marine resources should be described; · analysis of constraints and opportunities for activities possible within the area; · statement of the principal threats to the conservation and management of the area; · statement of policies, plans, actions, interagency agreements, and responsibilities of individual agencies existing or necessary for conservation and management of the area that is to meet the objectives of the MPA and to deal with threats and conflicts this may usefully include a summary of consultative processes followed in plan development; · statement of the boundaries, objectives, and conditions of use and entry for the component zones of the planned area; · provision for regulations required to achieve and implement boundaries and conditions of use and entry; and
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From page 122... ...
This plan defines specific objectives for each zone and identifies potential sites for these zones.
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From page 123... ...
One approach to coupling the use of MPAs with coastal zone management is to create contiguous marine and terrestrial protected areas. Local governments usually have an important role in controlling development and other activities in adjacent coastal areas, as a form of integrated coastal zone management.
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From page 124... ...
MPAs will also shift patterns of fishing effort, and management plans should be designed to take these expected changes into account. Temporal closures aimed at limiting fishing mortality can be effective if regulators correctly anticipate or control the fishery's reaction to time (and area)
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From page 125... ...
For example, biogenic habitat such as deep-sea corals once damaged by trawling could take many decades to recover. Also, when fish stocks collapse, recovery may be slow, especially for long-lived species that take many years to reach reproductive maturity.
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