Index
AAMR. See American Association on Mental Retardation
Abecedarian Project, 145, 148-150
Acceleration, 342-344
Achievement, school social, cultural, and contextual issues influencing, 371-372
Acquired inability to read. See Alexia
Adaptive behavior dimension, 257-259
ADD. See Auditory Discrimination in Depth program
Alcohol exposure, during pregnancy, 102-104
Alexia
acquired, 250
neuroanatomical lesions implicated in, 250
Alternative approaches to assessment, 279-320
alternatives to traditional classification and placement, 291-311
early screening and intervention for behavior problems, 296-299
early screening and intervention in reading, 293-296
eligibility decisions and system reform, 303-310
first step to success, 299
gifted and talented identification, 310-311
Incredible Years Series for training parent, teacher, and child, 300
interventions and referral decisions, 299-303
Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers, 30
recommendations, 311-320
special education without IQ in Iowa, 304-305
the Texas Primary Reading Inventory, 294-295
universal assessment, 298
universal screening, prevention, and early intervention, 292-293
American Association on Mental Deficiency, 252
American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), 253-254, 258
Aptitude by ethnic group, comparison of classification as MR, LD, and ineligible using FSIQ and PIQ to estimate, 257
Assessment, 243-291, 305-306, 312-313, 363-364.
See also Alternative approaches to assessment context, culture, and assessment, 279-291
cross-cultural psychological research on cognitive and intellectual ability, 280-282
disability assessment practices, 270-271
of emotional disturbance, 261-270
functional, and IEP relevance, 218
of gifted and talented, 271-278
of mental retardation, 251-261
psychometric views of culture and context, 282-291
research on test bias, 282-291
of specific learning disabilities, 243-251
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 59
Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) program, 333-334
Authentic questions, 183
Autism, 60
Behavior, school social, cultural, and contextual issues influencing, 371-372
Behavior disorder (BD), 324, 327-328, 336-337, 340
perspectives on, 262-264
Behavior management, 367-369
recommendations, 316-318
teacher quality, 318
Behavior problem profiles, 109
Behavioral adjustment, universal assessment and multiple gating, 298
Behavioral development. See Cognitive and behavioral development
Behavioral deviance, and reading skills, 201
Behavioral dimensions defining MR, 253-259
adaptive behavior, 257-259
comparison of classification as MR, LD, and ineligible using FSIQ and PIQ to estimate aptitude by ethnic group, 257
intellectual, 253-257
proportion of the population falling below certain IQ cutoffs and falling within certain IQ intervals, 254
“Behavioral earthquakes,” 229
Behavioral interventions in general education, 202-203
bullying prevention program, 202-203
through PATHS, 203
Benefits from special education intervention, 323-340
current classroom practice, 337-338
dropout rate among students with disability label by age, 341
evidence of effectiveness, 329-333
features of effective interventions, 324-328
minority students in special education, 338-340
number with disability label dropping out by age, 341
numbers of children who appear to benefit, 333-337
A Better Chance program, 351
Bias in referral and assessment, in terms of race or ethnicity, 5
Bias in the design and delivery of schooling, 181-188
cultural differences, 182-185
role of parents, 185-188
teacher judgments, expectations, and potential self-fulfilling prophecies, 181-182
Biological contributors to cognition and behavior, 97-117
contributors to early brain development, 98
exposure to alcohol during pregnancy, 102-104
exposure to lead, 111-117
Infant Health and Development Program, 103
low birthweight, 98-102
nutrition and development, 106-111
tobacco use and drug abuse, 104-106
Biological risk factors in early childhood, 11-13, 375-378
federal-level recommendations, 12-13
Biosocial developmental contextualism, 95
Biracial children, 38
Black students
“acting white,” 185
in the category of emotional disturbance, 69, 88
in the category of gifted and talented, 71, 89
Blood lead levels, prevalence of elevated, 113-114
Book awareness, 294
Bower, Eli, 25
Brain development, contributors to early, 98
Brain morphometry, 249
Brookline Early Education Project, 146, 149
Bully/Victim Questionnaire, 202
Bullying prevention program, 202-203
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 31, 339
Calculations, 42-43
composition index, 43
odds ratio, 43
risk index, 42-43
California Achievement Test, 111
Capacity of educational personnel, 30-31
CEI. See Critical Events Index
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 103, 112-113
Change
in accountability, 31-33
challenge of, 207-209
in education policies, 31-33
in the MMR construct, 260-261
in participation rates in judgmental categories, 83
Chicago Child-Parent Center Program, 151
Child Behavior Checklist, 262, 269, 297
Child care quality, 126-128
Child development programs, 144-151
benefits varying with type and level of risk, 149-150
comprehensive service provision, 149
developmental timing, 145
direct provision of learning experiences, 148
effect of early intervention on special education placement, 150-151
intellectual performance of children in the Abecedarian Project during the preschool years, 148
longitudinal studies of, 146-147
planned curriculum, 149
program intensity, 145-147
sustained cognitive, social, and school achievement benefits, 150
Child find procedures, 40
Child poverty, 120
Child psychiatric disorder, 129, 264
CI. See Composition index
Cigarettes, mothers who smoked during pregnancy, 106
Class size, 176-179
Classification decisions, 306-309
Classroom behavior, cultural differences and, 197-199
Classroom management, 199-204, 268
Cocaine exposure, 105-106
Cognitive and behavioral development, 93-140
biological contributors, 97-117
changing perspectives, 93-97
social and environmental influences, 118-140
Coleman Report, 179
Committee on Education Finance, 209, 372
Community-wide interventions, 206-207
Compacting, 345-346
Composition index (CI), 43, 57-59, 66-71, 86-89
Comprehension development, 193
Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration Program, 205
Comprehensive service provision, 149
Conceptual framework, 27-29
cross-cultural psychological research on cognitive and intellectual ability, 280-282
psychometric views of culture and context, 282-291
research on test bias, 282-291
school delinquency rates in relation to expected level, 171
theories and definitions of, 173
Context of special and gifted education, 17-34
current education context, 30-33
intersection of general and specialized education, 21-27
Contextual model of student achievement, 29
Contributors to early brain development, 98
Cooperative learning, 349-350
Cost of reform, 383-385
Council of State Directors of Gifted Education, 272
Critical Events Index (CEI), 229-230
Cross-cultural psychological research,
on cognitive and intellectual ability, 280-282
Cultural differences, 182-185, 279-291
and classroom behavior, 197-199
psychometric views of culture and context, 282-291
Current classroom practice, 337-338
Current context, 2-3
Current education context, 30-33
capacity of educational personnel, 30-31
changing education policies, 31-33
Current educational practices with ED students, 267-269
classroom management practices, 268
curricular content, 267-268
screening and assessment practices, 269-270
Current identification procedures, 250-251
Current referral and assessment process, reliably identifying special needs or giftedness, 5
Curricula, 199-204
Curricular content, 267-268
Curriculum models, 343-345
acceleration, 343-344
Integrated Curriculum Model, 345
school-wide enrichment model, 344
Triarchic Componential Model, 344-345
Cutoffs, IQ, proportion of the population falling below certain, 254
Data analysis
controversial, 15
factors compromising, 41-42
Data collection (DC), 7, 83, 378-382
Data on state-to-state variability, 62-72
emotional disturbance, 69-70
gifted and talented category, 70-72
learning disabilities, 67-69
mental retardation, 65-67
Datasets, inadequacy of, 37-39
DC. See Data collection
“Dead-end programs,” 288-289
Deaf-blindness, 60
Decontextualized intelligence, 279
Deficiencies, iron, among 1- to 2-year-old children by race and poverty status, 110
Denominators, 39
Depression, maternal, 125-126
Developmental delay, 6
Developmental disorders, 23
Developmental outcomes, for children by race, 98
Developmental timing, 145
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th ed. (DSM-IV), 262
Dialogue, interactive, between teacher and student and among students, 326
Diana consent decree, 226, 255
Diet changes, national ranking of New York City public schools before and after, 112
“Difficult-to-teach” (DTT) students, 228
Diffusion tensor MRI imaging, 249
Dinosaur Social Skills and Problem-Solving Curriculum, 300
Direct Instruction, 205
Direct instruction and inquiry development, 346
Direct provision of learning experiences, 148
Disability categories of concern, 36-39
assessment practices, 270-271
distribution of, 221
factors compromising interpretation of data, 41-42
gender breakdown by, 73
inadequacy of datasets, 37-39
legal classification requirements, 219-224
nonjudgmental, 54-61
state-to-state variations, 39-41
status, 38
Dropout rates, among students with disability label by age, 341
Drug abuse. See Tobacco use and drug abuse
DSM-IV. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th ed.
DTT. See “Difficult-to-teach” students
Durrell Oral Reading Test, 206
Dyslexia, 246-250
developmental, 250
phonological model of, 247-248
Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers, 120, 164, 377
Early brain development, contributors to, 98
Early childhood (EC) risk factors, 7
Early home visitation programs, 142-143
Early intervention, effect on special education placement, 150-151
Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities, 151, 158
Early intervention programs, 141-166, 365-367
child development programs, 144-151
Early Head Start, 162
existing federal early intervention programs, 151-162
federal spending on education and care of children under age 5, 152
Head Start, 159-162
household income and race/ethnicity for children receiving early intervention, 157
under IDEA, 151-159
parenting programs, 142-144
recommendations, 162-166
services for infants and toddlers, 151-158
services for preschoolers, 158-159
Early screening, 314-316
and intervention for behavior problems, 296-299
and intervention in reading, 293-296
EC. See Early childhood risk factors
ECLS. See Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
ED. See Emotional disturbance
Educable mentally retarded (EMR) children, 22-23, 307-308
Education
ability-appropriate, 23
current context, 30-33
Education of All Handicapped Children Act (EHA), 214-216, 244, 262, 310
Education personnel, 172-176
capacity of, 175-176
teacher quality, 172-175
Educational resources, 172-180
class size, 176-179
funding, 179-180
Effective interventions
basic elements of reading and writing, 326
explicit instruction, 325-326
features of, 324-328
general and special education successful for students with LD, 324-32
interactive dialogue between teacher and student and among students, 326
motivation to learn, task difficulty, and task persistence, 327-328
procedural facilitators or strategies, 328
small-group instruction and pairs, 326-327
Effectiveness measures, 329-333
minority students with learning disabilities and behavior disorders, 329-330
special education settings versus the general education classroom, 330-333
EHA. See Education of All Handicapped Children Act
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Title I, 31, 33, 205
Eligibility decisions, 218-219, 236-237, 312, 361-371
accountability, 310
assessment, 305-306
classification decisions, 306-309
“determinant factor” restrictions, 217
gifted and talented eligibility, 369-371
problem-solving approach, 303-305
special education eligibility, 361-369
and system reform, 303-310
Embedded Phonics (EP) program, 333-334
Emotional disturbance (ED), 1, 36-37, 40, 42, 44, 48-51, 62, 64, 69-70, 72-74, 76, 82-83, 222, 232, 261-271, 284, 324-328, 336-337, 340
current educational practices, 267-269
definitional dilemma, 25, 262-264
educating students with, 266-270
ethnicity and gender breakdown for, 73
indices of placement by race/ethnicity, 50
and learning disabilities, 23
perspectives on, 262-264
by race/ethnicity, 52
reactive school practices in identifying, 266-267
recent surveys, 48-50
risk indices for, 52-53
students’ characteristics, 265-266
trends over time, 51-53
variation in state-level risk indices for, 64
EMR. See Educable mentally retarded children
English as a Second Language programs, 195
English language learners, instruction for, 195-196
EP. See Embedded Phonics program
Equality of Educational Opportunity, 179
Evaluation
data needed, 235-236
full and individual, 215
initial, 234
procedures for, 234-235
Expectations, and potential self-fulfilling prophecies, 181-182
Explicit instruction, 325-326
Exposure to alcohol during pregnancy, 102-104
alcohol consumption after finding out about pregnancy, among expectant mothers in the United States, 104
Exposure to lead, 111-117
lead levels and measured behavior, 116
prevalence of elevated blood lead levels, 113-114
Fairness, of evaluation, 217, 226, 289
False positives, 38
Family adversity, and reading skills, 201
Family and Child Experiences Survey, 161
FAS. See Fetal alcohol syndrome
Federal data sets, 36-42
disability categories of concern, 36-39
Federal disability legal requirements, 213-215
Federal-level change recommendations, 7-8, 11-14, 211-212, 312-314, 354-356, 362-364, 375
reporting and monitoring, 313-314, 364
Federal Office of Special Education Programs, 364
Federal support
of education and care of children under age 5, 152
of state reform efforts, 9, 319, 369
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 102
“Flynn effect,” 27
Focus of instruction, 331-333
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development, 120
Full evaluation, 215
Full-scale IQ (FSIQ), 255-256
Functional assessment, and IEP relevance, 218
Functional imaging, 249
Funding, 179-180
idiosyncratic, 223
for reform, 383-385
Gardner, Howard, 278
Gating, multiple, 298
Gender comparisons, 72-76, 229
by disability, 73
for ED, 73
for MR, 74-75
Gender influence on referrals, 227-230
General education context, 169-212
bias in the design and delivery of schooling, 181-188
educational resources, 172-180
lessons from tested interventions, 188-204
recommendations, 209-212
successful for students with LD, 324-325
Genetic expression, 94
Gifted and talented (GT) eligibility, 7, 9, 369-371
IQ tests and, 290-291
recommendations, 319-320
Gifted and talented (GT) programs, 23-25
indices of placement in, by race/ethnicity, 53
Gifted and talented (GT) students, 70-72, 78-80, 196-197, 271-278, 340-354
benefits of gifted and talented assignment, 352-354
data monitored by OCR, 51-54
grouping arrangements, 347-352
identification of, 273-274, 310-311
odds ratios for, 54
percentage of students in gifted and nongifted programs who are assigned to algebra in grade 8, 353
percentage of students with specified grades and test scores by ethnicity for 8th grade gifted and talented students NELS 88 database, 353
percentages of 1st grade and 3rd grade cohorts in prospects study who scored at or above the 50th and 75th percentiles in reading and mathematics, 79
percentages of 4th grade students who scored within the proficient and advanced ranges on the reading, math, science, and writing tests of the NAEP, 79
referral and identification procedures, 274-276
research on curriculum models, 343-345
risk indices for, 54-55
screening and identification in
underserved populations, 276-278
specific instructional practices, 345-347
trends over time, 51-55
variation in state-level risk indices for, 65
Giftedness, 38-39
incidence of among racial/ethnic groups, 4
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 32
Graphophonemic knowledge, 294
Group size, 331
Grouping arrangements, 347-352
cooperative learning, 349-350
for minority and low-income students, 350-352
mixed results of within-class grouping, 347-349
GT. See Gifted and talented eligibility
Guadalupe consent decree, 255
Head Start, 14, 128, 150, 159-162, 201, 351, 377
fiscal year 2000 data, 161
Head Start Impact Study, 160
Health Center Program, 112
Hearing impairment, 56
High Schools that Work, 205
Hispanic students
in the category of emotional disturbance, 70, 88
in the category of gifted and talented, 71, 89
in the category of learning disabilities, 68, 88
in the category of mental retardation, 67, 87
History scores for 12th graders, average NAEP, by race/ethnicity and parent education level, 80
Home environment, parenting style and child development, 124
Household income and race/ethnicity, for children receiving early intervention, 157
Hyperactivity, 59
I Have a Dream program, 351
IDEA. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Identification
of giftedness, 273-274
procedures for, 250-251
reactive school practices in, 266-267
IEP. See Individualized education program
IHDP. See Infant Health and Development Program
Immigrants, 21
Improving America’s Schools Act, 32
Improving and expanding the research base, 13-14, 378-383
data collection, 378-382
expanding the research base, 382-383
federal-level recommendations, 13-14
Improving mother-infant attachment, 143
Improving outcomes, 321-385
recommendations, 357-385
weighing the benefits of placement, 323-356
Inadequacy of datasets, 37-39
denominators, 39
disability status, 38
giftedness, 38-39
race/ethnicity, 37-38
Inauthentic questions, 183
Incidence, versus prevalence, 38
Income-to-needs ratios and child cognitive ability
deep poverty and IQ scores, age 5, 121
deep poverty and math ability, 122
Incredible Years Series, parent, teacher, and child training, 300
Individual evaluation, 215
Individualized education program (IEP), 32, 186, 215-216, 219, 235, 302, 308, 313, 318, 339, 364, 366
functional assessment and relevance to, 218
Individualized evaluation, 215
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 2, 18-19, 36, 41, 44, 84, 151, 214-217, 219-220, 222, 226, 244, 279, 308-310, 314, 335, 337, 364-365, 379
additional team members, 238
amendments to, 31
criteria for determining the existence of a specific learning disability, 238
definition of a child with a disability, 240-242
determination of eligibility, 236-237
determination of needed evaluation data, 235-236
evaluation procedures, 234-235
initial evaluation, 234
interconnectedness of regulations, 219
observation, 239
procedures for evaluation and determination of eligibility, 234-239
reevaluation, 237
services for infants and toddlers, 151-158
services for preschoolers, 158-159
written report, 239
Infant competence, relation to competence and IQ scores at 4 years of age, 132
Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP), 103, 147, 149
Infants, receiving early intervention services, 154-155
Instruction, 199-204
for English language learners, 195-196
focus on, 331-333
interventions in, 204-206
Integrated Curriculum Model, 345, 351
Intellectual dimension of behavior, 253-257
Intelligence. See also IQ tests decontextualized, 279
“practical,” 281
Interactive dialogue, between teacher and student and among students, 326
Interpretation of data, factors compromising, 41-42
Interrelationship between general and specialized education, 21-27
emotional disturbance and learning disabilities, 23
gifted and talented programs, 23-25
mental retardation, 22-23
student characteristics and school services and settings, 26
Interventions
behavioral, 202-203
explicit instruction, 325-326
instructional, 204-206
interactive dialogue between teacher and student and among students, 326
motivation to learn, task difficulty, and task persistence, 327-328
procedural facilitators or strategies, 328
in reading and writing, 326
and referral decisions, 299-303
small-group instruction and pairs, 326-327
for students with LD, 324-325
successful, 324-328
Iowa Problem Solving Rules, 304
IQ-based disability determinations LD classification criteria, 285
misuse and racism, 284-285
misuse of, 284-285
problems with abandoning, 287-290
treatment validity, 284
IQ cutoffs
full-scale, 255-256
performance, 255-256
proportion of the population falling below certain, 254
IQ tests, 28, 41, 233, 275, 284-291, 313
and gifted and talented determination, 290-291
Iron deficiency, among 1- to 2-year-old children by race and poverty status, 110
Isle of Wight study, 200
Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act, 24-25, 311, 319, 351, 369
Juniper Gardens Children’s Project, 206
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 41
Kindergartners’ reading mean scale scores, by mother’s education, 138
Kirk, Samuel, 244
Labeling, 18
Language development, poverty and, 124-125
Larry P. decision, 72, 226, 233, 288-289
Lasting Benefits Study, 177-178
Lead, 11
exposure to, 111-117
levels of, and measured behavior, 114, 116
Learning Disabilities Act, 244
Learning disabilities (LD), 1-2, 36-38, 42- 44, 47-50, 59, 62-63, 67-69, 72, 76, 82-83, 222, 226-227, 243- 251, 256, 270-271, 284-287, 308, 324-326, 330, 337-338, 340
classification criteria, 285
concept of, 244
current identification procedures, 250-251
domain-specific definitions, 245-246
indices of placement for, 48
legal context, 244-245
“marker variables” for, 330
odds ratios for, 49
by race/ethnicity, 48-49
reading disability, 246-250
recent surveys, 47-48
risk indices for, 49-50
trends over time, 47-50
variation in state-level risk indices for, 63
Legal context, 213-224, 244-245
IDEA definitions of disabilities, 240-242
IDEA procedures for evaluation and determination of eligibility, 234-239
integration of PEDE with other IDEA regulations, 219
new regulations, 216-219
and the referral process, 213-242
Legal requirements for disability classification, 219-224
continuing, 215-216
disability classification policy, 222
distribution of disabilities by category, 221
federal, 213-215
state, discretionary, 223-224
Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT), 301
Locke, John, 288
Longitudinal studies, of child development programs, 146-147
Longitudinal Study of American Youth, 178
Low birthweight infants, 98-102
percentage by detailed race and Hispanic origin, 101-102
Low-income students, grouping arrangements for, 350-352
Magnetoencephalography, 249
Maternal depression, 125-126
Mathematics skills, 188-190, 281-282
Matthew effects, 332
Medical models, of disability classification, 220-222
Mental retardation (MR), 19, 22-23, 36-37, 43-47, 63, 65-67, 74-76, 82-83, 251-261, 270-271
in Alabama, ethnicity and gender breakdown for, 75
behavioral dimensions defining, 253-259
changes in the MMR construct, 260-261
ethnicity and gender breakdown for, 74-75
indices of placement by race/ethnicity, 45
in New Jersey, ethnicity and gender breakdown for, 75
odds ratios for, 46
recent surveys, 44-45
risk indices for, 46-47
screening for, 233
special classification problem with, 220
trends over time, 45-47
variation in state-level risk indices for, 63
Mercer’s analysis influence of, 225-226
of the “normal” student, 224
Meta-analysis, of the effects of phonological awareness training, 334
Mild mental retardation (MMR), 1, 36-37, 222, 225, 227, 251-252, 255-258, 260, 284, 287-288, 324
Milwaukee Project, 149
Minority students, 76-81
gifted and talented, 78-80
grouping arrangements for, 350-352
with learning disabilities and behavior disorders, 329-330
overrepresentation of, 233, 254, 289
Minority students in special and gifted education, 35-89, 338-340
black students in the category of emotional disturbance, 88
black students in the category of gifted and talented, 89
black students in the category of learning disabilities, 87
black students in the category of mental retardation, 86
data on state-to-state variability, 62-72
explaining minority representation, 76-81
federal data sets, 36-42
gender comparisons, 72-76
gifted and talented data monitored by OCR, 51-54
Hispanic students in the category of emotional disturbance, 88
Hispanic students in the category of gifted and talented, 89
Hispanic students in the category of learning disability, 88
Hispanic students in the category of mental retardation, 87
nonjudgmental disability categories, 54-61
recommendations, 81-86
review of the data, 42-51
summary of national data on racial and ethnic representation, 61-62
Mislabeling, 18
Misuse of IQ-based disability determinations, 284-285
MMR. See Mild mental retardation Mnemonic strategies, training in, 347
Mobil Unit for Child Health, 149
Mothers who smoked cigarettes during pregnancy, according to mother’s detailed race, Hispanic origin, educational attainment, and age, 106
Motivation to learn, 327-328
MR. See Mental retardation
MRI imaging, diffusion tensor, 249
Multiple disabilities, 60
Multiple domains, 216
Multiple gating, 298
Multiple Option Observation System for Experimental Studies, 269
Multiple risk factors, 128-140
adding and subtracting, 139
and child psychiatric disorder, 129
effects of SES on school readiness, 130-131
first-time kindergartners’ reading mean scale scores, by mother’s education, 138
frequency with which teachers say children exhibit antisocial behavior, 136-137
frequency with which teachers say children persist at a task, are eager to learn new things, and pay attention well, 134-135
multiplicity of risk factors and child psychiatric disorder, 129
print familiarity scores, 133
recognizing words by sight, 139
relation of infant competence to competence and IQ scores, 132
school readiness differences, 132-140
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 77, 190-191, 272, 292
students scoring within the proficient and advanced ranges on the reading, math, science, and writing tests, 79
National Assessment of Title I, 174
National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 39
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 39, 84, 125, 130
National Center for Learning Disabilities, 324
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS), 153, 156, 158, 167
National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS), 179, 352
National Excellence, 24
National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), 191, 285-286, 315, 319, 365, 369
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 128
National Longitudinal Transition Study of Students in Special Education, 340
National Maternal and Infant Health Survey, 102
National Research Council (NRC), 1-2, 18-20, 36, 113, 120, 164, 191, 225, 261, 282, 305-306, 311, 359
National Teacher Examinations, 174
Native language considerations, 217
NCES. See National Center for Education Statistics
NEILS. See National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study
NELS. See National Education Longitudinal Study
Neurobiological studies, 249-250
Neurological damage, 99
New regulations, 216-219
determination of eligibility, 218-219
disproportionality and nondiscrimination, 217
functional assessment and IEP relevance, 218
NICHD. See National Institute for Child Health and Human Development
Non-Western schooling, 280
Nondiscrimination, 217
Nonjudgmental disability categories, 54-61
autism, 60
deaf-blindness, 60
developmental delay, 6
hearing impairment, 56
multiple disabilities, 60
orthopedic impairment, 56
OSEP data by disability and ethnic group: composition index, risk index, and odds ratio, 57-59
speech and language impairments, 55-56
traumatic brain injury, 60
visual impairment, 56
NRC. See National Research Council Number Worlds, 189
Nutrition and development, 106-111
and behavior problem profiles, 109
iron deficiency by race and poverty status, 110
national ranking of New York City public schools before and after diet changes, 112
standard test score differences at 11 to 14 years old, 110
Observation, 239
Odds ratio (OR), 43-44, 46, 48-49, 51, 56-61
Office for Civil Rights (OCR), 2, 13, 19, 36-39, 42, 44-55, 69, 72-77, 81, 83-85, 198, 379-380
Office for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), 300
Office of Gifted and Talented, 24
Office of Management and Budget, Statistical Directive 15, 37
Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 13, 36-39, 42, 44-45, 47-50, 53-54, 57-59, 61, 81, 83-84, 222, 324, 379-380
data by disability and ethnic group, 57-59
OJJDP. See Office for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Open Court, 194
Oppositional culture, 184
OR. See Odds ratio
Orthopedic impairment, 56
OSEP. See Office of Special Education Programs
Outcomes
auditory discrimination in-depth, 334
embedded phonics, 335
improving, 321-385
Overrepresentation, of minority students, 233, 254, 289
Pairing, 326-327
Panel Study of Income Dynamics, 162
Paperwork Reduction Act, 84
Parent advocacy, 338-339
Parental referral, versus teacher, 230-232
Parenting interactions, 185-188
parenting style and child development, 124
Parenting programs, 142-144
with children ages 3 to 5, 143-144
from pregnancy through the first two years, 142-143
PATHS. See Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies
Patient disability, versus mental retardation, 62
Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) math scores, 119, 122
PEDE. See Procedures for Evaluation and Determination of Eligibility
Peer tutoring, 346-347
PEP. See Protection in Evaluation Procedures Provisions Percentage of children
in auditory discrimination in-depth program, 336
in embedded phonics program, 336
Percentage of first-time kindergartners adding and subtracting, 139
by the frequency with which teachers say they exhibit antisocial behavior, 136-137
by the frequency with which teachers say they persist at a task, are eager to learn new things, and pay attention well, 134-135
by print familiarity scores, by child and family characteristics, 133
recognizing the words by sight, 139
Percentage of low-birthweight births, by detailed race and Hispanic origin, 101-102
Percentage of students in gifted and nongifted programs who are assigned to algebra in grade 8, 353
with specified grades and test scores by ethnicity for 8th grade gifted and talented students, 353
Percentages of 1st grade and 3rd grade cohorts in prospects study, who scored at or above the 50th and 75th percentiles in reading and mathematics, 79
Percentages of 4th grade students, who scored within the proficient and advanced ranges on the reading, math, science, and writing tests of the NAEP, 79
Performance, defining, 39
Performance IQ (PIQ), 255-256
Perry Preschool project, 150, 166
Persistent poverty, 122
Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory, 173
Phonemic awareness, 294
Phonological awareness, 192
meta-analysis of the effects of training in, 334
Phonological deficit in adolescence and adult life, 248-249
Phonological model of dyslexia, 247-248
PIAT. See Peabody Individual Achievement Test math scores
PIQ. See Performance IQ
Placement in special education as a benefit or a risk, 5-6
for emotional disturbance by race/ethnicity, 50
in gifted and talented programs by race/ethnicity, 53
for learning disabilities by race/ethnicity, 48
for mental retardation by race/ethnicity, 45
outcome differences by race or ethnicity, 5-6
Placing Children in Special Education: A Strategy for Equity, 359
Planned curriculum, 149
Positives, false, 38
Poverty
correlation with single-parent status, 122
and language development, 124-125
persistent, 122
Practical intelligence, 281
Pregnancy through the first two years, 142-143
early home visitation programs, 142-143
early influences on cognition and behavior, 91-166
early intervention programs, 141-166
improving mother-infant attachment, 143
influences on cognitive and behavioral development, 93-140
Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, 166
Preschool children with disabilities, served under IDEA, by age and year, 159
Preschool Grants Program for Children with Disabilities, 158
President’s Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks to Children, 11, 117, 163, 376
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, 164, 377
Print awareness, 294
Problem-solving approach, to eligibility decisions, 303-305
Procedural facilitators, 328
Procedures
for current identification, 250-251
for determining eligibility and placement, 237
for evaluation, 234-235
for finding disabled children, 40
for referral and identification, 274-276
Procedures for Evaluation and Determination of Eligibility (PEDE), 214-215, 239n
integration with other IDEA regulations, 219
Program intensity, 145-147
Project CARE, 149
Project Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR), 175, 177-178, 208
Projective instruments, 271
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), 203
Protection in Evaluation Procedures Provisions (PEP), 214-215
Psychiatric disorders, in children, 129, 264
Psychoeducational assessment, 226, 228
Psychometric views of culture and context, 282-291
IQ tests and gifted and talented determination, 290-291
problems with abandoning IQ-based disability determination, 287-290
problems with IQ-based disability determinations, 283-285
validity of LD discrepancies, 285-287
Psychometrics, 254
Puente project, 352
Race/ethnicity, 37-38
national versus Part C percentages, 156
of preschoolers receiving special education and of the general preschool population, 160
proper use of categories, 37
variability within, 37-38
Racism
in IQ-based disability determinations, 284-285
in referrals, 227-230
Raven’s Progressive Matrices, 276-277
RD. See Research and development base
Reactive school practices in identification, 266-267
Readiness testing, 310
Reading, 190-195
accuracy of, 294
basic elements of, 326
comprehension of, 295
Reading disability, 246-250
neurobiological studies, 249-250
phonological deficit in adolescence and adult life, 248-249
the phonological model of dyslexia, 247-248
useful accommodations in, 249
Reading instruction
components of effective, 192-193
comprehension and vocabulary development, 193
phonological awareness, 192
word study, 193
Reading Recovery, 194, 331, 334-335
Reading scores, average NAEP, by race/ethnicity and parent education level, 80
Reading skills, and family adversity and behavioral deviance, 201
Recommendations, 6-14, 81-86, 162-166, 209-212, 311-320, 354-385
behavior management, 316-318
biological and social risk factors in early childhood, 11-13, 375-378
changes in participation rates in judgmental categories, 83
cost of reform, 383-385
federal-level changes, 211-212, 312-314, 354-356
federal support of state reform efforts, 9, 319, 369
gifted and talented eligibility, 9, 319-320
improving and expanding the research base, 13-14, 378-383
referral and eligibility determination, 361-371
school context and student performance, 9-11
school social, cultural, and contextual issues influencing achievement and behavior, 371-372
special education eligibility, 7-9
state-level changes, 314-316, 372-375
teacher quality, 210-211, 372-375
vision for change, 359-361
Referral and identification procedures, 5, 274-276
Referral decisions, 361-371
gifted and talented eligibility, 369-371
interventions and, 299-303
special education eligibility, 361-369
Referral process, 224-234
influence of Mercer’s analysis, 225-226
race and gender influences on referrals, 227-230
referrals by classroom teachers, 226-227
referred and not referred students, 232-233
subjectivity of, 5
teacher versus parent referral, 230-232
“watch list,” 233
Reform, cost of, 383-385
Regulations. See also Legal requirements for disability classification interconnectedness of IDEA, 219
new, 216-219
Research and development (RD) base, 7
expanding, 382-383
Resolving Conflict Creatively Program, 201
Review of the data, 42-51
calculations, 42-43
emotional disturbance, 48-51
learning disabilities, 47-48
mental retardation, 44-47
Revised Behavior Problem Checklist, 262
Rightstart curriculum, 189-190
Risk index (RI), 42-44, 48-49, 51, 55-61, 65-71, 86-89
Riverside Desegregation Study, 233, 257
Rochester Adaptive Behavior Inventory, 130
SAGE. See Student Achievement Guarantee in Education program
SCHOOL. See Supporting Your Child’s Education
School Archival Records Search, 269
School context and student performance, 9-11
federal-level recommendations, 11
state-level recommendations, 10-11
School delinquency rates, in relation to expected level, 171
School readiness
differences in, 132-140
SES effects on, 130-131
School-wide enrichment model, 344
School-wide interventions, 204-206
Schools’ contributions to incidence of special needs or giftedness among racial/ethnic groups, 4-5
Science Advisory Board, 113
Screening practices, 269-270
in underserved populations, 276-278
SE. See Special education
Self-concept improvements, 326
Self-fulfilling prophecies, and teacher judgments and expectations, 181-182
SES. See Socioeconomic status effects
SFA. See Success for All
Single-parent status, correlation with poverty, 122
SLI. See Speech and language impairments
SM. See Socially maladjusted
Small-group instruction, 326-327
SMART. See Start Making a Reader Today program
Social and environmental influences on development, 118-140
child care quality, 126-128
children under 18 living in poverty, 118
maternal depression, 125-126
multiple risks, 128-140
parenting style and child development, 124
poverty and language development, 124-125
understanding SES effects, 119-122
Social risk factors in early childhood, 11-13, 375-378
federal-level recommendations, 12-13
Social Security Income Maintenance benefits, 287
Social Skills Rating System, 262, 269
Social system models, of disability classification, 220-222
Socially maladjusted (SM), 263
Socioeconomic status (SES) effects, 119-122
child poverty, 120
income-to-needs ratios, and child cognitive ability, 121-122
school readiness, 130-131
understanding, 119-122
Special education (SE), 17-34, 76-78
conceptual framework, 27-29
criticisms direct at, 217
current education context, 30-33
disproportionate representation of minority students and males in, 18-21
intersection of general and specialized education, 21-27
paradox of, 20
successful for students with LD, 324-325
without IQ in Iowa, 304-305
Special education (SE) eligibility, 7-9, 361-369
federal-level recommendations, 7-8, 362-364
federal support of state reform efforts, 9, 369
state-level recommendations, 8-9, 365-369
Special education (SE) interventions maintenance of effects of training, 333
numbers of children who appear to benefit from, 333-337
outcomes for auditory discrimination in-depth, 334, 336
outcomes for embedded phonics, 335-336
Special education (SE) settings versus the general education classroom, 330-333
focus of instruction, 331-333
group size, 331
Special Strategies, 206
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), 112-113
Specific instructional practices, 345-347
compacting, 345-346
direct instruction and inquiry development, 346
peer tutoring, 346-347
training in mnemonic strategies, 347
Specific learning disabilities, 243-251
criteria for determining the existence of, 238
Speech
composition of, 247
decoding, 247-248
Speech and language impairments (SLI), 36-37, 55-56, 222
SSBD. See Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders
Stanford-Binet, 41
STAR. See Project Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio
Start Making a Reader Today (SMART) program, 207
State Departments of Education, Special Education Rules, 224
State-level recommendations, 8-11, 314-316, 365-369
behavior management, 367-369
early intervention, 365-367
early screening, 314-316
teacher quality, 10-11
State-to-state variability, 39-41, 62-72
emotional disturbance, 69-70
gifted and talented category, 70-72
learning disabilities, 67-69
mental retardation, 65-67
Stereotype vulnerability, 181
Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) program, 177-178
Student behavior, 197-204
behavioral interventions in general education, 202-203
culture and classroom behavior, 197-199
instruction, curricula, and classroom management, 199-204
reading skills, family adversity, and behavioral deviance, 201
Student characteristics, 265-266
and school services and settings, 26
Success for All (SFA), 194-196, 205
Supporting Your Child’s Education (SCHOOL), 300
Surgeon General’s Report on Youth Violence, 301
Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD), 297
Talented students. See Gifted and talented students
Task difficulty and persistence, 327-328
Task Force on Effective Psychosocial Interventions, 300
Teacher judgments and potential self-fulfilling prophecies, 181-182
“teachers as tests,” 229
Teacher Observation of Child Adjustment (TOCA), 297-298
Teacher quality (TQ), 7, 10-11, 172-175, 318, 372-375
federal-level recommendation, 375
Teacher referral
most important factor in assignment, 226
versus parental, 230-232
subjectivity of, 227
and teacher tolerance for misbehavior, 233
Team decision making, 216
Team members, 238
Test bias
IQ tests and gifted and talented determination, 290-291
problems with abandoning IQ-based disability determination, 287-290
problems with IQ-based disability determinations, 283-285
research on, 282-291
validity of LD discrepancies, 285-287
Test-taking skills, 291
Tested interventions
challenge of change, 207-209
community-wide, 206-207
components of effective reading instruction, 192-193
with gifted students, 196-197
instruction for English language learners, 195-196
lessons from, 188-204
in mathematics, 188-190
in reading, 190-195
school-wide, 204-206
with student behaviors, 197-204
Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI), 293-295, 384
National Assessment of, 174
Tobacco use and drug abuse, 104-106
cocaine exposure, 105-106
mothers who smoked cigarettes during pregnancy, according to mother’s detailed race, Hispanic origin, educational attainment, and age, 106
tobacco exposure rates, 105
TOCA. See Teacher Observation of Child Adjustment
Toddlers, receiving early intervention services, 154-155
TPRI. See Texas Primary Reading Inventory
TQ. See Teacher quality
Tracking, 347
Traumatic brain injury, 60
Treatment validity, 284
Trends over time, 45-55
Triarchic Componential Model, 278, 344-345
Universal assessment, 292-293, 298
behavioral adjustment, 298
Universal K-12 education, assumptions underlying, 17
Upward Bound program, 351
U.S. Department of Education, 84, 250, 319, 324, 369, 380, 382, 384
Office for Civil Rights, 2, 13, 19, 36-39, 42, 44-55, 69, 72-77, 81, 84-85, 198, 379-380
Office of Gifted and Talented, 24
Office of Special Education Programs, 13, 36-39, 42, 44-45, 47-50, 53-54, 57-59, 61, 81, 84, 222, 324, 379-380
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 112
Head Start Impact Study, 160
U.S. Department of Labor, 31
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, 113
Validity of LD discrepancies, 285-287
Variability. See Race/ethnicity;
State-to-state variability
Vision for change, 359-361
Visual impairment, 56
Vocabulary development, 193
Vocabulary size, 124-125
Wechsler scales, 41, 129-130, 233, 255
Weighing the benefits of placement, 323-356
benefits for gifted students, 340-354
recommendations, 354-356
student benefits from special education intervention, 323-340
WIC. See Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children
Wisconsin Car Sorting Test, 115
“Within-child” problems, 6
Within-class grouping, mixed results from, 347-349
Word study, 193
Writing, basic elements of, 326
Written reports, 239
